The bi-polar confrontation between the Soviet Union and the USA involved many leading game theorists from both sides of the Iron Curtain: Oskar Morgenstern, John von Neumann, Michael Intriligator, John Nash, Thomas Schelling and Steven Brams from the United States and Nikolay Vorob’ev, Leon A. Petrosyan, Elena B. Yanovskaya and Olga N. Bondareva from the Soviet Union. The formalization of game theory (GT) took place prior to the Cold War but the geopolitical confrontation hastened and shaped its evolution. In our (...) article we outline four similarities and differences between Western GT and Soviet GT: 1) the Iron Curtain resulted in a lagged evolution of GT in the Soviet Union; 2) Soviet GT focused more on operations research and issues of centralized planning; 3) the contemporary Western view on Soviet GT was biased and Soviet contributions, including works on dynamic stability, non-emptiness of the core and many refinements, suggest that Soviet GT was able to catch up to the Western level relatively fast; 4) international conferences, including Vilnius, 1971, fostered interaction between Soviet game theorists and their Western colleagues. In general, we consider the Cold War to be a positive environment for GT in the West and in the Soviet Union. (shrink)

-/- The Ethics of Overpopulation: A Tool for War or a Path to Imbalance? -/- The idea of intentionally manipulating population growth to create more soldiers for war is a complex and ethically troubling concept. While historical precedents suggest that such strategies have been employed, examining their implications through the lens of natural law and societal balance reveals profound consequences. This discourse explores the historical, ethical, and practical dimensions of this issue and the potential long-term impacts of such actions. -/- (...) Historical Precedents and Motivations -/- Throughout history, population growth has often been tied to militaristic ambitions. Rulers and governments have implemented policies to increase birth rates, particularly during times of conflict or expansion. For instance, Napoleon Bonaparte incentivized larger families in France to expand his army, and Nazi Germany promoted high birth rates under the guise of national strength and racial purity. These examples highlight how pro-natalist policies have historically been used to serve the interests of war and power. -/- The rationale behind these policies is clear: larger populations provide a greater pool of potential soldiers. In societies where military service is mandatory or economically attractive, a higher birth rate ensures a steady supply of recruits. However, this approach raises critical ethical questions about the value placed on human life and the potential exploitation of vulnerable populations. -/- Ethical and Moral Implications -/- Manipulating population growth for the purpose of creating soldiers treats individuals as mere tools for warfare, undermining their inherent dignity and humanity. Such actions prioritize national or military ambitions over the well-being of citizens, leading to generational cycles of poverty, suffering, and inequality. Moreover, intentionally fostering overpopulation disregards the broader societal and environmental consequences, including resource scarcity, overcrowding, and social unrest. -/- From the perspective of natural law, this approach represents a clear violation of balance. The universal law of balance emphasizes harmony between human decisions and the natural world. Any attempt to manipulate population growth for militaristic purposes creates systemic imbalances, not only within society but also in the environment. Overpopulation exacerbates ecological degradation and strains the planet’s finite resources, leading to widespread consequences that far outweigh any temporary military advantage. -/- Modern Warfare and Population Dynamics -/- The evolution of warfare further challenges the rationale for such strategies. Modern conflicts increasingly rely on technological advancements, such as artificial intelligence, drones, and cyberwarfare, which reduce the dependence on large standing armies. This shift diminishes the need for overpopulation as a means of military expansion and highlights the growing importance of education, technological innovation, and strategic planning over sheer numbers. -/- In this context, the intentional manipulation of population growth becomes not only unethical but also impractical. Nations seeking military strength should focus on developing technological capabilities and fostering innovation rather than perpetuating cycles of overpopulation and exploitation. -/- A Balanced Approach to Population and Peace -/- Addressing the root causes of conflict and promoting sustainable growth offer a more balanced and ethical alternative. Education, access to family planning, and the cultivation of critical thinking can empower societies to break free from cycles of overpopulation and war. Furthermore, global cooperation and adherence to principles of natural balance can guide humanity toward peace, ensuring that decisions align with long-term well-being rather than short-term military ambitions. -/- The universal law of balance underscores the interconnectedness of all systems—natural, societal, and individual. Decisions that prioritize harmony and sustainability ultimately lead to a more stable and prosperous world. Conversely, actions driven by exploitation and imbalance, such as manipulating population growth for war, create cascading consequences that undermine both humanity and the planet. -/- Conclusion -/- The intentional manipulation of population growth for the purpose of creating soldiers for war is a practice rooted in historical precedent but fraught with ethical, societal, and environmental consequences. In an era where technological advancements and global challenges demand sustainable solutions, such strategies are not only outdated but also incompatible with the principles of balance and natural law. Humanity must strive for a future where peace and harmony take precedence over exploitation and conflict, guided by a holistic understanding of balance and sustainability. Only then can we ensure a world that values life over war and fosters progress without compromising the dignity and well-being of future generations. -/- . (shrink)

This article argues that Fabre’s cosmopolitan war is implausible because it ignores the psychological realities of war. Building on J.L. Mackie’s notion of an ‘ethics of fantasy’ – a morality reduced to lip-service and incapable of action-guiding – I argue that a view based on a flawed view of either human agency or the environment in which it is exercised is doomed to practical irrelevance. In rejecting patriotism and advancing a highly individualistic view of war, Fabre relies upon a (...) highly flawed view of human agency, ignoring the psychological mechanism of depersonalisation essential to large-scale cooperation and the practice of war. In Part I, I offer an initial account of what an ‘ethics of fantasy’ is and offer one major reason why certain moralities fail as practical guidance. In Part II, I contrast Fabre’s moral cosmopolitanism with ancient cosmopolitanism; I focus on her rejection of patriotism and other identity-based forms of partiality. In Part III, I summarise key findings, mostly in social psychology, on how large-scale social cooperation is achieved. I highlight the central role of depersonalisation and its felicity conditions. In Part IV, I argue that Fabre’s view faces a dilemma. Either her cosmopolitanism is compatible with identity-based partiality, or it is not. If not, then she does not even have a view of war given that large-scale cooperation requires it. If her view is compatible, then she needs a functional replacement for patriotism. I conclude by showing that the alternatives fail to satisfy the felicity conditions of depersonalisation which war requires. (shrink)

Gold and Its Role in War, Economy, and the Shift to Fiat Currency -/- Gold has long been a symbol of wealth, power, and economic stability. Historically, it was used as money, backing national currencies and serving as a reserve asset. However, its limitations led to the shift toward fiat currency, which provides greater flexibility in managing modern economies. Gold has also played a crucial role in global conflicts, particularly World War II, where nations hoarded, looted, and traded gold to (...) finance their war efforts. Understanding the relationship between gold, war, and economic stability explains why the world moved away from the gold standard and adopted fiat money. -/- The Limitations of Gold as Money -/- While gold has been used as currency for centuries, it has several drawbacks that make it unsuitable for modern economies. First, gold is not easily divisible or portable, making everyday transactions impractical. Carrying and transferring large amounts of gold requires security and infrastructure, increasing costs. Additionally, gold supply is limited, meaning that as economies grow, the money supply cannot expand accordingly, leading to deflation and economic stagnation. -/- Gold’s price volatility also makes it a poor monetary standard. Unlike fiat money, which governments can regulate, gold’s value fluctuates based on mining output, global demand, and geopolitical events. This instability can create uncertainty in financial markets. Moreover, in today’s digital economy, gold cannot facilitate rapid, electronic transactions, making it inefficient for global trade. -/- Perhaps the most significant limitation is that a gold-based system restricts monetary policy. Governments and central banks use interest rates and money supply adjustments to manage inflation, unemployment, and economic growth. A gold standard would prevent these interventions, making financial crises harder to control. -/- Gold and Economic Conflicts -/- If gold were still the primary form of money, it could lead to major economic and geopolitical conflicts. Gold is not evenly distributed worldwide, meaning nations with larger reserves would have disproportionate financial power, potentially leading to tensions and wars over resources. -/- A gold-based economy would also increase economic instability. Countries would hoard gold during crises, reducing money circulation and triggering deflation, unemployment, and recessions. Additionally, a reliance on gold would encourage illegal mining, black markets, and corruption, further destabilizing global economies. -/- Gold’s Role in World War II -/- Gold played a crucial role in World War II, financing both the Axis and Allied powers. Nations used gold to purchase war materials, pay for military expenses, and maintain economic stability during the conflict. -/- Nazi Germany’s Gold Hoarding and Economic Warfare -/- The Third Reich relied heavily on stolen gold to finance its war machine. The Nazis: -/- Looted central bank reserves from occupied countries such as Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Belgium, and France. -/- Stole gold from individuals, especially Jewish victims of the Holocaust, by confiscating jewelry, coins, and even extracting gold from dental fillings. -/- Traded stolen gold with neutral countries, such as Switzerland, Spain, and Portugal, in exchange for vital war materials like oil, tungsten, and industrial equipment. -/- Deposited gold in Swiss banks, where it was laundered and converted into usable currency, allowing the Nazis to bypass economic sanctions. -/- Japan’s Gold Operations in Asia -/- Japan also plundered gold and resources from occupied territories in China, the Philippines, Malaya, and Indonesia. Some theories suggest Japan hid large amounts of looted gold, known as “Yamashita’s Gold”, in underground vaults in the Philippines. Like Germany, Japan used stolen gold to trade for fuel, weapons, and technology. -/- Allied Powers and Gold Reserves -/- While the Axis relied on looted gold, the Allied powers used their national gold reserves to finance their war efforts: -/- The United States and Britain backed war loans and military production with gold reserves. The U.S. used its gold stockpile to fund the Lend-Lease Program, which provided military aid to allies such as Britain, the Soviet Union, and China. -/- Britain moved its gold reserves to Canada for safekeeping, fearing a German invasion. -/- The Soviet Union used gold to purchase war materials from neutral nations, ensuring its war effort remained well-supplied. -/- Neutral countries like Switzerland, Spain, and Portugal facilitated war financing by exchanging gold for goods, often ignoring its origins. Swiss banks in particular played a key role in laundering Nazi gold, enabling Germany to continue funding its military. -/- The Shift to Fiat Currency -/- World War II demonstrated the financial instability of relying on gold, leading to major economic reforms. In 1944, the Bretton Woods Agreement established a new financial system, where the U.S. dollar was linked to gold, and other currencies were pegged to the dollar. This created stability in global finance. However, as economies grew, the limitations of gold-backed currency became clear. In 1971, the U.S. abandoned the gold standard, transitioning to a fully fiat currency system. -/- Fiat money allows governments to: -/- Expand the money supply to support economic growth. -/- Adjust interest rates and inflation to stabilize economies. -/- Avoid deflation and liquidity crises that plagued the gold standard. -/- Fiat currency also eliminates gold-related conflicts and reduces dependence on resource-intensive mining, benefiting both economies and the environment. -/- Conclusion -/- Gold has played a central role in economic history, from its use as money to its impact on global conflicts. While valuable, gold is impractical as modern money due to its physical limitations, deflationary risks, and geopolitical consequences. World War II showcased the dangers of gold hoarding and economic warfare, leading to the adoption of fiat currency. The transition to fiat money has enabled greater economic stability, flexibility, and global trade, making it the foundation of the modern financial system. -/- . (shrink)

Gold and Its Role in War, Economy, and the Shift to Fiat Currency -/- Gold has long been a symbol of wealth, power, and economic stability. Historically, it was used as money, backing national currencies and serving as a reserve asset. However, its limitations led to the shift toward fiat currency, which provides greater flexibility in managing modern economies. Gold has also played a crucial role in global conflicts, particularly World War II, where nations hoarded, looted, and traded gold to (...) finance their war efforts. Understanding the relationship between gold, war, and economic stability explains why the world moved away from the gold standard and adopted fiat money. -/- The Limitations of Gold as Money -/- While gold has been used as currency for centuries, it has several drawbacks that make it unsuitable for modern economies. First, gold is not easily divisible or portable, making everyday transactions impractical. Carrying and transferring large amounts of gold requires security and infrastructure, increasing costs. Additionally, gold supply is limited, meaning that as economies grow, the money supply cannot expand accordingly, leading to deflation and economic stagnation. -/- Gold’s price volatility also makes it a poor monetary standard. Unlike fiat money, which governments can regulate, gold’s value fluctuates based on mining output, global demand, and geopolitical events. This instability can create uncertainty in financial markets. Moreover, in today’s digital economy, gold cannot facilitate rapid, electronic transactions, making it inefficient for global trade. -/- Perhaps the most significant limitation is that a gold-based system restricts monetary policy. Governments and central banks use interest rates and money supply adjustments to manage inflation, unemployment, and economic growth. A gold standard would prevent these interventions, making financial crises harder to control. -/- Gold and Economic Conflicts -/- If gold were still the primary form of money, it could lead to major economic and geopolitical conflicts. Gold is not evenly distributed worldwide, meaning nations with larger reserves would have disproportionate financial power, potentially leading to tensions and wars over resources. -/- A gold-based economy would also increase economic instability. Countries would hoard gold during crises, reducing money circulation and triggering deflation, unemployment, and recessions. Additionally, a reliance on gold would encourage illegal mining, black markets, and corruption, further destabilizing global economies. -/- Gold’s Role in World War II -/- Gold played a crucial role in World War II, financing both the Axis and Allied powers. Nations used gold to purchase war materials, pay for military expenses, and maintain economic stability during the conflict. -/- Nazi Germany’s Gold Hoarding and Economic Warfare -/- The Third Reich relied heavily on stolen gold to finance its war machine. The Nazis: -/- Looted central bank reserves from occupied countries such as Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Belgium, and France. -/- Stole gold from individuals, especially Jewish victims of the Holocaust, by confiscating jewelry, coins, and even extracting gold from dental fillings. -/- Traded stolen gold with neutral countries, such as Switzerland, Spain, and Portugal, in exchange for vital war materials like oil, tungsten, and industrial equipment. -/- Deposited gold in Swiss banks, where it was laundered and converted into usable currency, allowing the Nazis to bypass economic sanctions. -/- Japan’s Gold Operations in Asia -/- Japan also plundered gold and resources from occupied territories in China, the Philippines, Malaya, and Indonesia. Some theories suggest Japan hid large amounts of looted gold, known as “Yamashita’s Gold”, in underground vaults in the Philippines. Like Germany, Japan used stolen gold to trade for fuel, weapons, and technology. -/- Allied Powers and Gold Reserves -/- While the Axis relied on looted gold, the Allied powers used their national gold reserves to finance their war efforts: -/- The United States and Britain backed war loans and military production with gold reserves. The U.S. used its gold stockpile to fund the Lend-Lease Program, which provided military aid to allies such as Britain, the Soviet Union, and China. -/- Britain moved its gold reserves to Canada for safekeeping, fearing a German invasion. -/- The Soviet Union used gold to purchase war materials from neutral nations, ensuring its war effort remained well-supplied. -/- Neutral countries like Switzerland, Spain, and Portugal facilitated war financing by exchanging gold for goods, often ignoring its origins. Swiss banks in particular played a key role in laundering Nazi gold, enabling Germany to continue funding its military. -/- The Shift to Fiat Currency -/- World War II demonstrated the financial instability of relying on gold, leading to major economic reforms. In 1944, the Bretton Woods Agreement established a new financial system, where the U.S. dollar was linked to gold, and other currencies were pegged to the dollar. This created stability in global finance. However, as economies grew, the limitations of gold-backed currency became clear. In 1971, the U.S. abandoned the gold standard, transitioning to a fully fiat currency system. -/- Fiat money allows governments to: -/- Expand the money supply to support economic growth. -/- Adjust interest rates and inflation to stabilize economies. -/- Avoid deflation and liquidity crises that plagued the gold standard. -/- Fiat currency also eliminates gold-related conflicts and reduces dependence on resource-intensive mining, benefiting both economies and the environment. -/- Conclusion -/- Gold has played a central role in economic history, from its use as money to its impact on global conflicts. While valuable, gold is impractical as modern money due to its physical limitations, deflationary risks, and geopolitical consequences. World War II showcased the dangers of gold hoarding and economic warfare, leading to the adoption of fiat currency. The transition to fiat money has enabled greater economic stability, flexibility, and global trade, making it the foundation of the modern financial system. -/- . (shrink)

While current doctrines try to separate conflicts within two distinct categories – conventional versus irregular, there are, however, a series of contemporary conflicts that challenge this western view on war showing that the disjunctive manner of classification in ‘big and conventional’ versus ‘small and irregular’ is limited and simplistic. The military strategists as well as the academics used a series of concepts in order to describe the main shifts in the character of war – from the Fourth Generation Warfare (4GW) (...) and ‘new wars’ to hybrid wars. This article aims to identify these mutations in war evolution in the new, post-Cold War international context. The traditional image we have on this well-known ‘labor division’ within the military field no longer reflects reality. (shrink)

We dwell in a world of physical things. When it comes to the environments that we live in, we usually become oriented to the place, and eventually feel at home in it. Facing death during war and pandemic are times of extreme disorientation, and we sometimes exhibit an impulse to flee. It is no wonder that in those desperate times, some with means and ability consider fleeing to a safer place. But are we morally obliged to act in ways that (...) would ask us to sacrifice our deepest personal commitments and projects for others to meet their commitments and projects? It is argued here that fleeing Bosnia and Herzegovina during wartime, like what happened in the 90s, and fleeing a city during a pandemic may be morally decent actions. However, it is also an issue of political decency and fractured friendships. In cases or war and pandemic, returning home to contribute to the well-being of those they left behind may be morally and politically decent, but the fractured friendships may contribute to normative ambiguity. Why would anyone trust them again and regard them as a loyal friend? Perhaps reestablishing those trusting friendships may require those who remained behind to do what is supererogatory, i.e., doing more than can reasonably be asked of them, which in this case amounts to forgiving those who fled and giving them a second chance by welcoming them back home. (shrink)

Atomic energy developed from 1940 as a subject shrouded in secrecy. Identified successively as a crucial element in military strategy, national status and export aspirations, the research and development of atomic piles (nuclear chain-reactors) were nurtured at isolated installations. Like monastic orders, new national laboratories managed their specialist workers in occupational environments that were simultaneously cosseted and constrained, defining regional variants of a new state-managed discipline: reactor technology. This paper discusses the significance of security in defining the new subject in (...) the USA, UK and Canada – wartime allies with similar political traditions but distinct trajectories in this field during the Cold War. The intellectual borders and content of the subject developed differently in each country, shaped under the umbrella of secrecy by disparate clusters of expertise, industrial traditions, and national goals. The nascent cadre was contained until the mid 1950s by classified publications and state-sponsored specialist courses. The early context of high security filtered its members and capped enduringly both their professional aspirations and public engagement. (shrink)

The production of scientific instruments in America was neither a postwar phenomenon nor dramatically different from that of several other developed countries. It did, however, undergo a step-change in direction, size and style during and after the war. The American scientific instrument industry after 1945 was intimately dependent on, and shaped by, prior American and European experience. This was true of the specific genres of instrument produced commercially; to links between industry and science; and, just as importantly, to manufacturing practices (...) and cultures. I will argue that, despite the new types of instrument commercialized after the war, this historical continuity of links with science and scientists guided and constrained the design and manufacture of these products. Nevertheless, new designers, manufacturers and customers gradually transformed the culture of scientific instruments in the second half of the century. -/- This chapter deals with a subset of the American instrument industry, namely the measuring and monitoring instruments manufactured for scientific use. Even with the specification of ‘scientific’ instruments, however, these borders are rather artificial and unclear: instrument making from the seventeenth through the twentieth century has generally involved the fabrication of both standard products and custom-made devices for scientific use.2 In this context of sales quantities, ‘scientific’ instruments have often been defined as low-volume, special-order or custom devices. In a similar vein, ‘scientific’ instruments were commonly distinguished from ‘production’ instruments by context of usage, namely their very absence from – and indeed irrelevance to – production environments. This demarcation according to customer and environment was mirrored in at least one furth er respect: the training of their users. The classification into ‘scientific’ and ‘engineering’ applications was as fluid as the relationship between American universities and technical industries themselves.Despite these complementary definitions, the notion of the ‘scientific instrument’ was beginning to prove inadequate even at the turn of the twentieth century, and dramatically so when discussing the post-Second World War period. Definitions altered qualitatively after the Second World War in at least three further ways: (a) new genres of device altered the scope of the scientific instrument; (b) the contribution of State and military sponsorship of new forms of instrument became significant; and, (c) the postwar demand for specialist instruments increased rapidly, owing to wartime innovation, new applications and new customers. I will explore the evolution of instrument manufacturing in this changing context of new technology, funding, development and markets. (shrink)

The term “technological fix”, coined by technologist/administrator Alvin Weinberg in 1965, vaunted engineering innovation as a generic tool for circumventing problems commonly conceived as social, political or cultural. A longtime Director of Oak Ridge National Laboratory, government consultant and essayist, Weinberg also popularized the term “Big Science” to describe national goals and the competitive funding environment after the Second World War. Big Science reoriented towards Technological Fixes, he argued, could provide a new “Apollo project” to address social problems of (...) the future. His ideas – most recently echoed in “solutionism” – have channeled confidence and controversy ever since. This paper traces the genesis and promotion of the concept by Weinberg and his contemporaries. It argues that, through it, the marginal politics and technological confidences of interwar scientists and technocrats were repositioned as mainstream notions closer to the heart of Big Science policy. (shrink)

The Dangers of Living in an Unsafe Community: Causes, Effects, and Comprehensive Government Solutions -/- The environment in which a person lives significantly impacts their well-being, security, and future opportunities. Staying in a community with dangerous individuals—such as criminals, violent gangs, or those engaging in unethical behavior—poses serious risks. While some people may have no choice due to financial or personal circumstances, it is always advisable to seek a safer environment whenever possible. This essay explores the causes of (...) unsafe communities, their negative effects, and a comprehensive government-led approach to solving these issues, including the importance of urban planning, housing development in slum areas, and family planning programs to prevent overcrowding. -/- Causes of Unsafe Communities -/- Several factors contribute to the existence of dangerous communities. These include economic instability, lack of education, weak law enforcement, poor urban planning, social inequality, and overpopulation. -/- 1. Poverty and Unemployment -/- One of the main causes of crime in a community is poverty. When individuals lack access to stable jobs, they may resort to illegal activities such as theft, drug dealing, or organized crime to survive. -/- For example, in Venezuela, the economic crisis has forced many people into criminal activities as a means of survival. In cities like Caracas, robbery, kidnapping, and gang-related violence have increased due to extreme poverty and lack of job opportunities. -/- 2. Lack of Education -/- Poor education systems can contribute to crime by limiting opportunities for young people. Without access to quality education, individuals may struggle to find legal employment and turn to crime as an alternative. -/- In Nigeria, for instance, many youths in underdeveloped regions receive little to no formal education, increasing the likelihood of recruitment into terrorist groups like Boko Haram, which exploits uneducated and unemployed individuals for violent activities. -/- 3. Weak Law Enforcement -/- In many high-crime areas, law enforcement is either ineffective, corrupt, or underfunded. When police presence is weak, criminals feel emboldened to continue illegal activities without fear of consequences. -/- A notable example is Mexico, where drug cartels control entire towns due to weak law enforcement. In places like Guerrero and Sinaloa, police officers are often either bribed or threatened into ignoring cartel activities, allowing crime to thrive. -/- 4. Poor Urban Planning and Slums -/- Lack of proper urban planning leads to the growth of slums—densely populated, unregulated settlements where living conditions are poor. These areas often lack basic infrastructure such as clean water, sanitation, and proper roads, creating an environment where crime can flourish. -/- For example, in Mumbai, India, slum areas like Dharavi are overcrowded, with families living in small, poorly constructed homes. The lack of proper planning has led to high crime rates, including illegal drug trade and violence. -/- In Kenya, the Kibera slum in Nairobi is one of Africa’s largest slums. Due to limited government intervention, residents struggle with extreme poverty, making them vulnerable to criminal organizations and illegal activities. -/- 5. Overpopulation and Lack of Family Planning -/- Uncontrolled population growth, especially in urban areas, leads to overcrowding, resource depletion, and increased poverty. Without proper family planning programs, families may have more children than they can support, worsening economic struggles and increasing crime rates. -/- For example, in Metro Manila, Philippines, rapid population growth has led to extreme congestion, lack of affordable housing, and growing informal settlements. Overcrowding puts pressure on public services, making it difficult to provide jobs, healthcare, and education to all residents. -/- Effects of Living in an Unsafe Community -/- 1. Physical Safety Risks -/- One of the most immediate dangers of living in a high-risk community is the threat to personal safety. -/- For example, in Chicago, USA, gang-related violence has made it dangerous for residents to walk outside even in broad daylight. -/- 2. Mental and Emotional Stress -/- Living in an unsafe environment can cause severe mental health problems such as anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). -/- A st’dy in Detroit, USA, found that children growing up in high-crime areas often experience PTSD similar to that seen in war veterans. -/- 3. Limited Opportunities for Growth -/- Dangerous communities often struggle with economic and social instability. -/- For example, in Detroit, the decline of industry and rise in crime rates have left many neighborhoods economically devastated. -/- Comprehensive Government Solutions -/- To solve the problem of unsafe communities, governments must implement a multifaceted approach that addresses the root causes of crime while ensuring long-term stability. This requires economic investment, improved education, stronger law enforcement, urban planning, family planning programs, social welfare programs, and community engagement. -/- 1. Urban Planning and Housing for Slum Areas -/- Slum Upgrading Programs -/- Example: In Thailand, the Baan Mankong Housing Program provides slum residents with legal housing rights and funds to upgrade their homes. -/- Affordable Housing Projects -/- Example: Singapore’s Housing Development Board (HDB) successfully provided affordable homes for its citizens, reducing crime and homelessness. -/- Access to Basic Services -/- Example: In Brazil’s favelas, government intervention in providing sanitation and electricity has helped lower crime rates. -/- 2. Family Planning and Population Control -/- Governments must implement family planning programs to control rapid population growth in urban areas. Overpopulation leads to overcrowding, poverty, and strain on public services, which in turn contributes to crime. -/- Government-Sponsored Family Planning Programs -/- Governments should offer free access to contraceptives and family planning education to reduce unplanned pregnancies. -/- Example: Bangladesh’s national family planning program successfully reduced birth rates, easing pressure on urban centers and public services. -/- Sex Education in Schools -/- Educating young people about reproductive health and responsible parenthood helps prevent overpopulation. -/- Example: The Netherlands has one of the lowest teen pregnancy rates due to comprehensive sex education. -/- Economic Incentives for Smaller Families -/- Providing financial benefits to families that have fewer children can encourage responsible parenthood. -/- Example: China’s former one-child policy (although controversial) successfully slowed population growth in urban areas. -/- 3. Economic Development and Job Creation -/- Investment in local businesses -/- Example: In Medellín, Colombia, economic programs and infrastructure investment helped transform the city from one of the most dangerous in the world into a thriving urban center. -/- Vocational training programs -/- Example: Germany’s apprenticeship programs help integrate youth into the workforce, reducing unemployment and crime. -/- 4. Strengthening Law Enforcement and Justice Systems -/- Community policing: -/- Example: Japan’s Koban system (small police stations in neighborhoods) has contributed to its low crime rate. -/- Criminal justice reform: -/- Example: Norway’s prison system, which prioritizes rehabilitation, has one of the lowest recidivism rates in the world. -/- 5. Community Engagement and Grassroots Initiatives -/- Neighborhood watch programs: -/- Example: In London, community-led safety initiatives have helped reduce crime in certain districts. -/- Support for at-risk youth: -/- Example: In Brazil, the government funds Capoeira programs to engage youth in a positive cultural activity instead of gangs. -/- Conclusion -/- Unsafe communities are the result of complex social, economic, and political factors. Poor urban planning, poverty, overpopulation, lack of education, weak law enforcement, and social inequality all contribute to high crime rates. However, governments have the power to create lasting change through a combination of urban planning, family planning, economic investment, educational reform, improved law enforcement, social welfare, and community engagement. -/- By taking a holistic approach, governments can transform unsafe neighborhoods into thriving, secure communities, ensuring a brighter future for all citizens. -/- . (shrink)

The Advantages of Self-Sufficient Countries with Manageable Populations and Minimal Import Dependence -/- Introduction -/- In a world where globalization has connected economies, many nations remain highly dependent on imports for essentials such as food, energy, and industrial materials. While trade brings benefits, over-reliance on imports exposes nations to risks such as supply chain disruptions, inflation, and geopolitical pressures. However, some countries have successfully built self-sufficient economies, allowing them to thrive with minimal reliance on foreign resources. -/- Self-sufficient countries benefit (...) from economic stability, enhanced national security, environmental sustainability, and a higher quality of life. Examples such as Norway, Switzerland, New Zealand, Iceland, Bhutan, and Uruguay demonstrate that strategic resource management, energy independence, and population control contribute to long-term success. -/- This essay will explore the key advantages of self-sufficiency, examine the strategies employed by these nations, and highlight the broader implications of reducing import dependence. -/- 1. Economic Stability and Resilience -/- One of the primary benefits of self-sufficiency is economic stability. Nations that produce essential goods locally are less vulnerable to global economic downturns, inflation, and trade disruptions. -/- Trade Surplus and Financial Security -/- Countries like Norway and Switzerland have built strong economies by focusing on industries that generate trade surpluses. -/- Norway: A leading exporter of oil, gas, and seafood, Norway earns more from exports than it spends on imports, ensuring a strong national economy. -/- Switzerland: With a diverse economy—banking, pharmaceuticals, and precision manufacturing—Switzerland remains stable despite global financial fluctuations. -/- Local Industry Growth and Job Creation -/- By minimizing imports, self-sufficient nations stimulate local industries, creating jobs and ensuring wealth stays within national borders. -/- New Zealand: Its agricultural sector produces dairy, meat, and fruit for both local consumption and global export, strengthening the workforce and financial stability. -/- Uruguay: The country invests in local renewable energy industries, reducing dependence on imported fossil fuels while creating green jobs. -/- Protection from Global Economic Shocks -/- When economies rely heavily on imports, external crises like wars, pandemics, or financial recessions can cause severe economic disruptions. Self-sufficient nations are more resilient: -/- Switzerland’s banking sector thrives regardless of external turmoil due to its strong internal financial policies. -/- Iceland’s geothermal energy independence protects it from global oil price fluctuations. -/- 2. National Security and Political Independence -/- A country that depends heavily on imports is vulnerable to trade restrictions, geopolitical tensions, and supply chain disruptions. Self-sufficient nations reduce foreign dependencies, strengthening national security and political stability. -/- Energy and Resource Security -/- Self-sufficient countries avoid dependence on foreign energy sources, making them less vulnerable to political blackmail or economic manipulation. -/- Iceland generates 100% of its electricity from geothermal and hydro energy, eliminating its reliance on oil imports. -/- Uruguay produces 98% of its energy from renewable sources, reducing its need for foreign energy supplies. -/- Reduced Geopolitical Vulnerability -/- Countries that rely heavily on imports can be pressured by foreign powers through trade restrictions or embargoes. -/- Switzerland’s economic neutrality allows it to trade freely while maintaining independence from global conflicts. -/- Bhutan discourages foreign consumerism to maintain sovereignty and control over its economy. -/- 3. Environmental Sustainability and Climate Resilience -/- Reducing import dependence directly benefits the environment. Long-distance shipping, mass production, and over-reliance on fossil fuels all contribute to global pollution. Self-sufficient countries focus on local production and sustainability, lowering their environmental impact. -/- Renewable Energy Leadership -/- Norway: Nearly 100% of Norway’s electricity comes from hydropower, making it a leader in green energy. -/- Iceland: Geothermal and hydroelectric plants generate all of Iceland’s electricity, eliminating fossil fuel imports. -/- Bhutan: The country exports excess hydropower to India, reducing the need for fossil fuels regionally. -/- Sustainable Agriculture and Land Management -/- Food self-sufficiency is essential for sustainability. Countries that prioritize local food production ensure long-term food security and reduce carbon emissions from imported food transportation. -/- New Zealand’s farming industry provides dairy, beef, and fruits for domestic consumption and export. -/- Bhutan promotes organic farming, making it one of the most sustainable agricultural economies in the world. -/- 4. Social Stability and Quality of Life -/- Countries with well-managed populations and self-sufficient economies enjoy higher living standards, better infrastructure, and lower poverty rates. -/- Population Management and Resource Allocation -/- Self-sufficient nations carefully regulate population growth to match available resources, ensuring sustainable development. -/- Iceland and Bhutan have small, manageable populations, allowing them to provide high-quality healthcare, education, and infrastructure. -/- Switzerland’s strict immigration policies ensure that economic growth does not outpace resource availability. -/- Resilient Social Systems -/- Strong social welfare programs are more effective in self-sufficient countries because resources are distributed efficiently. -/- Norway: High-quality education, healthcare, and pension systems ensure a high standard of living. -/- Switzerland: The government reinvests economic surplus into public services, benefiting all citizens. -/- 5. Crisis Preparedness and Resilience -/- Global crises such as pandemics, wars, and economic recessions highlight the dangers of import dependence. Self-sufficient nations can respond effectively to crises without relying on external aid. -/- Pandemic and Food Security -/- During the COVID-19 pandemic, supply chain disruptions left many countries struggling to import essential goods. However, self-sufficient nations remained stable. -/- New Zealand’s strong food production ensured that its citizens had uninterrupted access to food supplies. -/- Switzerland’s well-stocked food reserves allowed it to manage shortages without external dependence. -/- War and Trade Embargo Resilience -/- Countries that produce their own essential goods are less affected by global conflicts. -/- Iceland’s fishing industry and energy independence keep its economy stable regardless of international instability. -/- Norway’s oil reserves and food security ensure long-term resilience against economic disruptions. -/- 6. Minimal Import Dependence: The Path to Sustainable Growth -/- While some level of trade is beneficial, excessive import dependence weakens a nation’s economic and political stability. The countries examined here have taken strategic steps to limit imports while maximizing domestic production. -/- Lessons from Self-Sufficient Nations -/- 1. Invest in Renewable Energy – Iceland, Norway, and Uruguay have shown that countries can function without fossil fuel imports through hydropower, geothermal, and wind energy. -/- 2. Prioritize Food Security – Switzerland, New Zealand, and Bhutan ensure food independence through agriculture and local food production. -/- 3. Control Population Growth – Iceland and Bhutan demonstrate that sustainable population sizes lead to better economic planning and quality of life. -/- 4. Develop Strong Local Industries – Norway and Switzerland focus on high-value goods that allow them to export more than they import. -/- 5. Encourage Sustainable Practices – Bhutan and New Zealand promote environmentally friendly farming and renewable energy, ensuring long-term stability. -/- Conclusion -/- Self-sufficient countries with manageable populations and minimal reliance on imports enjoy numerous advantages, including economic stability, national security, environmental sustainability, and a high quality of life. Nations such as Norway, Switzerland, New Zealand, Iceland, Bhutan, and Uruguay demonstrate that renewable energy, food production, and population control lead to long-term prosperity. -/- As the world faces increasing economic and environmental uncertainties, adopting self-sufficiency principles can help nations become more resilient, independent, and sustainable. While globalization has its benefits, balancing local production with strategic trade is the key to securing a stable and prosperous future. -/- . (shrink)

The nuclear engineer emerged as a new form of recognised technical professional between 1940 and the early 1960s as nuclear fission, the chain reaction and their applications were explored. The institutionalization of nuclear engineering—channelled into new national laboratories and corporate design offices during the decade after the war, and hurried into academic venues thereafter—proved unusually dependent on government definition and support. This paper contrasts the distinct histories of the new discipline in the USA and UK (and, more briefly, Canada). In (...) the segregated and influential environments of institutional laboratories and factories, historical actors such as physicist Walter Zinn in the USA and industrial chemist Christopher Hinton in the UK proved influential in shaping the roles and perceptions of nuclear specialists. More broadly, I argue that the State-managed implantation of the new subject within further and higher education curricula was shaped strongly by distinct political and economic contexts in which secrecy, postwar prestige and differing industrial cultures were decisive factors. (shrink)

The Concept of Power: Its Nature, Forms, and Impact -/- Introduction -/- Power is one of the most fundamental forces shaping human civilization, scientific progress, and personal development. It is present in every aspect of life—from the natural world to political structures, from economic systems to personal relationships. At its core, power is the ability to influence, control, or direct outcomes, whether through force, knowledge, persuasion, or other means. -/- However, power can be used in both constructive and destructive ways. (...) While ethical power leads to progress and justice, the misuse of power creates oppression, corruption, and societal imbalance. This essay explores different dimensions of power, including scientific, political, economic, and philosophical power, while also highlighting examples of the misuse of power and its consequences. -/- Forms of Power -/- 1. Physical and Scientific Power -/- In the scientific realm, power is defined as the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. It is a measurable quantity, expressed in watts (W), and is essential in fields such as engineering, mechanics, and electricity. -/- For example, in mechanical engineering, a car engine generates power by converting fuel into kinetic energy, allowing the vehicle to move. Similarly, in renewable energy, solar panels convert sunlight into electrical power, demonstrating how natural forces can be harnessed for human use. -/- Misuse of Scientific Power: Nuclear Weapons -/- A key example of the misuse of scientific power is the development of nuclear weapons. The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 demonstrated the destructive potential of scientific advancements when used irresponsibly. While nuclear energy can be a powerful source of clean electricity, its military application led to mass destruction, the loss of thousands of innocent lives, and long-term environmental and health consequences. -/- 2. Social and Political Power -/- Political power is the ability to influence governance, policies, and social structures. It exists at different levels, from small communities to global institutions. -/- Types of Political Power: -/- Legitimate power: Derived from laws and democratic institutions, such as the authority of an elected president or parliament. -/- Coercive power: Based on force, often seen in dictatorships or police states where compliance is ensured through fear. -/- Soft power: The ability to shape opinions and values through culture, diplomacy, and media, as seen in the global influence of Hollywood movies or international organizations like the United Nations. -/- Example of Proper Political Power Use: Nelson Mandela’s leadership in South Africa was an example of moral and legitimate power. Despite being imprisoned for 27 years, he led his country to end apartheid through reconciliation rather than revenge. -/- Misuse of Political Power: Dictatorships and Oppression -/- Example: Adolf Hitler (Nazi Germany) One of the most infamous examples of political power being used in the wrong way is Adolf Hitler’s regime in Nazi Germany. Hitler gained power through democratic means but later abolished freedoms, controlled information, and used propaganda to manipulate the masses. His leadership led to World War II, the Holocaust, and the deaths of millions of people. His misuse of political power resulted in genocide, war crimes, and long-term global instability. -/- Example: North Korea’s Authoritarian Rule In modern times, North Korea is an example of political power used to oppress rather than empower. The government, led by Kim Jong-un, controls every aspect of citizens’ lives, from their access to information to their ability to leave the country. The country’s resources are allocated to its military, while many citizens suffer from poverty and starvation. This is an example of power used to control people rather than improve their well-being. -/- 3. Psychological and Personal Power -/- Personal power is an individual’s ability to influence their own life and the lives of others. It can take many forms: -/- Inner power: Strength, resilience, and self-discipline, allowing people to overcome adversity. -/- Social power: Charisma, persuasion, and emotional intelligence that enable individuals to lead and inspire others. -/- Knowledge power: The ability to gain influence through education and expertise. -/- Example of Proper Personal Power Use: The philosopher Socrates possessed immense intellectual power. Even without political authority, his ideas shaped Western thought through questioning and critical thinking. Today, leaders and influencers continue to shape society using their intellectual power. -/- Misuse of Psychological Power: Manipulation and Propaganda -/- Example: Cult Leaders (Jim Jones and the Jonestown Massacre) Some individuals misuse personal power to manipulate others for selfish or destructive purposes. A tragic example is Jim Jones, the leader of the People’s Temple cult. He used psychological manipulation to gain total control over his followers, leading to the infamous Jonestown Massacre in 1978, where over 900 people died in a mass murder-suicide. -/- Example: Social Media Misinformation In today’s digital age, personal power is often misused on social media platforms. False information and propaganda are used to manipulate public opinion, often leading to social division, violence, and political unrest. -/- 4. Economic Power -/- Economic power refers to control over financial resources, industries, and markets. Those who control wealth often shape global and national policies, technological advancements, and even cultural trends. -/- Proper Use of Economic Power: -/- Corporate power: Companies like Amazon, Google, and Tesla wield significant economic power, influencing markets and technological innovation. -/- Wealth and capital: Billionaires such as Elon Musk and Jeff Bezos can impact industries like space travel and artificial intelligence through private investments. -/- Misuse of Economic Power: Corporate Greed and Exploitation -/- Example: The 2008 Financial Crisis The 2008 financial crisis was a result of large financial institutions misusing their economic power. Banks engaged in reckless lending, market manipulation, and financial fraud, leading to a global economic collapse. Millions of people lost their jobs, homes, and savings due to the greed and irresponsibility of a few. -/- Example: Sweatshops and Worker Exploitation Some multinational corporations use their economic power to exploit cheap labor in developing countries, forcing workers to endure low wages, unsafe conditions, and inhumane treatment. This misuse of power highlights the dark side of economic influence when profit is prioritized over ethics. -/- 5. Power in Nature and Universal Law -/- From the perspective of the universal law of balance in nature, power must be aligned with natural equilibrium to ensure sustainability and harmony. If power is used excessively or irresponsibly, it creates imbalances—whether in the environment, society, or personal well-being. -/- Misuse of Power in Nature: Environmental Destruction -/- Example: Climate Change and Industrial Pollution Human industrial activity has disrupted the natural balance of the planet. Deforestation, excessive carbon emissions, and overconsumption of natural resources have led to global warming, species extinction, and ecological collapse. This is an example of humanity misusing its power over nature without considering the consequences. -/- The Ethical Use of Power -/- Power itself is neither good nor bad—it depends on how it is used. Ethical power aligns with justice, wisdom, and balance, while unethical power leads to corruption and destruction. -/- Principles of Ethical Power Use: -/- 1. Responsibility: Those in power must act for the common good rather than personal gain. -/- 2. Transparency: Power should be exercised openly, with accountability to the people it affects. -/- 3. Balance: Power must be used in a way that sustains long-term harmony rather than creating instability. -/- Conclusion -/- Power is a complex and dynamic force that can lead to progress or destruction, depending on how it is used. History provides countless examples of both ethical and unethical power, showing that unchecked power leads to oppression, injustice, and suffering. -/- The universal law of balance in nature teaches that any misuse of power will eventually lead to consequences. Therefore, the wisest approach to power is to use it ethically, responsibly, and in alignment with natural equilibrium. -/- . (shrink)

Warfare is becoming increasingly automated, from automatic missile defense systems to micro-UAVs (WASPs) that can maneuver through urban environments with ease, and each advance brings with it ethical questions in need of resolving. Proponents of lethal autonomous weapons systems (LAWS) provide varied arguments in their favor; robots are capable of better identifying combatants and civilians, thus reducing "collateral damage"; robots need not protect themselves and so can incur more risks to protect innocents or gather more information before using deadly force; (...) robots can assess situations more quickly and do so without emotion, reducing the likelihood of fatal mistakes due to human error; and sending robots to war protects our own soldiers from harm. However, these arguments only point in favor of autonomous weapons systems, failing to demonstrate why such systems need be made *lethal*. In this paper I argue that if one grants all of the proponents' points in favor of LAWS, then, contrary to what might be expected, this leads to the conclusion that it would be both immoral and illegal to deploy *lethal* autonomous weapons, because the many features that speak in favor of them also undermine the need for them to be programmed to take lives. In particular, I argue that such systems, if lethal, would violate the moral and legal principle of necessity, which forbids the use of weapons that impose superfluous injury or unnecessary harm. I conclude by highlighting that the argument is not against autonomous weapons per se, but only against *lethal* autonomous weapons. (shrink)

Karl Polanyi in The Great Transformation diagnosed what had happened in the Nineteenth Century that led to poverty, increasingly wild economic fluctuations, increasingly severe depressions, and social dislocation and oppression on a massive scale – the market had been disembedded from communities which were then subjected to the imperatives of a supposedly autonomous market. In fact, such disembedding and imposition of these imperatives was a deliberate strategy developed as a means to impose exploitative relations on people, in opposition to ideas (...) of republican democracy. Recognizing this, after such disembedding had engendered a major global depression in the 1890s and an even more severe depression in the 1930s, along with two world wars, reformers largely succeeded in re-embedding markets. This achievement was fought by neoliberals, and their triumph in the 1970s was a really a project of reversion to the Nineteenth Century economic and political order, now upheld by much more powerful forces, including immensely powerful transnational corporations and financial institutions, corrupt politicians, and much more effective mind control industries. As in the Nineteenth Century, it has concentrated wealth and income, destabilized economies, and threatens a new Great Depression and, as a by-product of the tensions generated by global ecological destruction, possibly a new world war. As opposed to Marxist analyses, Polanyi’s analysis provided a much clearer goal to aim at that has not been discredited by the failures of supposedly communist countries. However, there are still huge problems to be overcome if we are to re-embed the market in communities, including the problem of grappling with the immense power of transnational corporations and financial institutions and those who serve them and the success they have had in corrupting the institutions and culture of democracy. This includes not only undermining the power of nations to control their economies and their subversion of democratic processes, but also in promoting passivity in the population to render them inert and powerless. In this paper I will examine proposals, such as those promoted by Arild Vatn in his book Institutions and the Environment, to develop institutions able to achieve this re-embedding. (shrink)

Gender inequality generates negative consequences for the economy, social sphere, and often the environment at the level of individual countries and the world. In this way, inequality creates a gender gap. The issue of reducing the gender gap was highlighted in the Sustainable Development Goals and drew scientists' attention from various fields and international organizations to a multifaceted study of the gender gap phenomenon at different levels. The article analyzes available indicators that measure the gender gap and the conducted (...) earlier research on the factors that influence gender equality. We chose the Global Gender Gap Index. We found a statistically significant impact on the gender gap: the share of women in the total population, the level of achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals, the level of democracy, and GNI per capita. Thus, by accelerating the achievement of sustainable development goals and implementing democratic reforms, countries are reducing the gender gap in society. Our study did not confirm the statistically significant inverse relationship between fertility rates and the gender gap, which was previously established based on incomplete statistical information. Also, the gender gap is not affected by the country's population growth or by the country's belonging to one of the four groups by per capita income. The impact of migration processes on gender equality requires an in-depth and additional analysis based on data showing the impact of migration movements influenced by the war between Russia and Ukraine. (shrink)

The Consequences of Human Overpopulation: Nature’s Automatic Balancing Mechanism -/- Introduction -/- Throughout history, civilizations have risen and fallen due to their ability—or failure—to manage resources and population growth. In today’s world, human overpopulation has reached an unprecedented scale, straining ecosystems, depleting resources, and accelerating climate change. If population growth remains unchecked, nature will impose its own form of balance through disease, war, famine, and environmental collapse. This essay explores how overpopulation mirrors invasive species behavior and how nature’s corrective mechanisms (...) will inevitably restore equilibrium if humans fail to act. -/- Human Overpopulation as an Invasive Species Phenomenon -/- In ecology, an invasive species is one that spreads uncontrollably, outcompeting native species and destabilizing ecosystems. Humans fit this description in many ways. Over the past centuries, human populations have expanded across the planet, altering environments, driving species to extinction, and consuming resources at an unsustainable rate. -/- Characteristics of an Invasive Species in Human Behavior: -/- 1. Uncontrolled Growth – The human population has increased exponentially, surpassing eight billion and continuing to rise. -/- 2. Resource Overconsumption – Forests are cleared, water sources are depleted, and fossil fuels are burned at unsustainable rates. -/- 3. Disruption of Ecosystems – Pollution, habitat destruction, and climate change have permanently altered natural cycles. -/- 4. Lack of Natural Population Control – Unlike other species, humans have eliminated most natural predators and diseases through medicine and technology. -/- When any species exceeds the carrying capacity of its environment, nature enforces balance through survival pressures. Humanity is not exempt from this rule. -/- Nature’s Methods of Population Control -/- If humans fail to regulate their own numbers, natural forces will intervene. The following mechanisms have historically served as population checks and will continue to do so: -/- 1. Disease and Pandemics -/- Throughout history, pandemics have significantly reduced human populations. The Black Death in the 14th century wiped out nearly 50% of Europe’s population, and more recently, COVID-19 caused millions of deaths worldwide. Overpopulation leads to dense urban areas where diseases spread rapidly. Additionally, antibiotic resistance and new viruses could emerge as unintended consequences of human activity, leading to more devastating outbreaks. -/- 2. War and Conflict -/- As resources become scarce, competition intensifies. Wars often arise from disputes over land, water, food, and energy. In modern times, conflicts in regions suffering from overpopulation and resource depletion—such as the Middle East and parts of Africa—demonstrate this pattern. Future conflicts over freshwater, fertile land, and energy resources are highly likely. -/- 3. Famine and Food Shortages -/- The global food supply is under strain as agricultural land becomes exhausted and climate change disrupts weather patterns. As the population grows, the demand for food increases, but overfarming leads to soil degradation, making it harder to produce enough food. Countries already facing food insecurity will suffer the most, leading to malnutrition, starvation, and potential mass migrations. -/- 4. Environmental Collapse -/- Unchecked human activity is leading to deforestation, biodiversity loss, and pollution. Climate change, fueled by overpopulation and industrialization, is causing more frequent and severe natural disasters, including hurricanes, droughts, and wildfires. These environmental catastrophes will destroy infrastructure, displace millions, and further strain already limited resources. -/- 5. Social Breakdown and Crime -/- Overpopulation leads to overcrowded cities, economic inequality, and competition for jobs and resources. In societies where basic needs cannot be met, crime rates rise, and social unrest becomes more frequent. Countries with high population densities and weak governance structures are already experiencing increased violence, civil conflicts, and failing economies. -/- Can Humanity Avoid Nature’s Harsh Correction? -/- Unlike other species, humans have the ability to recognize and mitigate the consequences of their actions. There are two possible paths: -/- 1. Self-Regulation Through Sustainable Policies -/- Governments and organizations can promote family planning, education, and birth control to stabilize population growth. -/- Shifting toward sustainable agriculture, renewable energy, and resource conservation can help prevent environmental collapse. -/- Strengthening international cooperation to manage resource distribution and prevent conflicts can reduce the risks of war and famine. -/- 2. Ignoring the Problem and Facing Natural Consequences -/- If humanity refuses to control its population, disease, war, famine, and environmental collapse will enforce balance. -/- The poorest regions will suffer first, but wealthier nations will also experience economic decline, migration crises, and societal breakdown. -/- Conclusion -/- Human overpopulation follows the pattern of an invasive species, consuming resources at an unsustainable rate and destabilizing ecosystems. While humans have the intelligence and technology to regulate their own numbers, history suggests that if we fail to act, nature will impose balance through suffering and destruction. Whether through pandemics, war, famine, or climate disasters, population control will occur—either by human intervention or by nature’s unforgiving hand. -/- The choice is clear: Will humanity take responsibility for its future, or will we wait for nature to correct our mistakes in the most brutal way possible? -/- . (shrink)

Holography, the three-dimensional imaging technology, was portrayed widely as a paradigm of progress during its decade of explosive expansion 1964–73, and during its subsequent consolidation for commercial and artistic uses up to the mid 1980s. An unusually seductive and prolific subject, holography successively spawned scientific insights, putative applications and new constituencies of practitioners and consumers. Waves of forecasts, associated with different sponsors and user communities, cast holography as a field on the verge of success—but with the dimensions of success repeatedly (...) refashioned. This retargeting of the subject represented a degree of cynical marketeering, but was underpinned by implicit confidence in philosophical positivism and faith in technological progressivism. Each of its communities defined success in terms of expansion, and anticipated continual progressive increase. This paper discusses the contrasting definitions of progress in holography, and how they were fashioned in changing contexts. Focusing equally on reputed ‘failures’ of some aspects of the subject, it explores the varied attributes by which success and failure were linked with progress by different technical communities. This important case illuminates the peculiar post-World War II environment that melded the military, commercial and popular engagement with scientific and technological subjects, and the competing criteria by which they assessed the products of science. (shrink)

The World Today If the Problem of Free Will Had Been Solved Long Ago -/- The problem of free will has perplexed philosophers, scientists, and thinkers for centuries. If this fundamental issue had been resolved earlier—specifically through the understanding that human decision-making follows natural laws—our world might look drastically different today. The principles of cause and effect, balance, and interconnected systems would have guided societal, economic, and environmental decisions, potentially creating a more harmonious, sustainable, and enlightened global civilization. This essay (...) explores what the world might have become had the problem of free will been solved long ago and the universal laws of decision-making applied across generations. -/- 1. Balanced Societies and Sustainable Growth -/- If the universal formula for free will, grounded in natural laws such as the law of balance, had been integrated into human society from the beginning, our world would likely enjoy a more balanced relationship with nature. Unchecked population growth, environmental degradation, and the relentless pursuit of economic expansion could have been mitigated. Societies might have adopted policies that respected the natural limits of their environments, ensuring that growth was sustainable rather than driven by short-term gains. For instance, countries might have collaborated early on to protect natural resources, resulting in cleaner air, abundant biodiversity, and stable ecosystems. -/- Economic systems would also have been more balanced. The understanding that continuous growth without regard for natural limits leads to societal imbalance might have prevented excessive consumerism and unsustainable industrial practices. Global economies might have prioritized long-term well-being over immediate profit, ensuring that wealth was distributed more equitably and that social stability was preserved. -/- 2. Education Rooted in Natural Laws -/- An early solution to the free will problem would have revolutionized educational systems worldwide. Education would not have been limited to memorizing facts or passing exams; instead, it would have focused on understanding the natural laws governing human behavior and societal systems. Concepts like cause and effect, feedback mechanisms, and balance in nature would have been taught from a young age, fostering critical thinking and rational decision-making across generations. -/- Such an educational approach might have minimized the spread of misinformation, dogma, and false beliefs. Students would have learned to question assumptions, seek evidence, and understand the consequences of their actions. The development of a more scientifically literate, critically minded population could have led to societies better equipped to handle complex challenges, such as global health crises, economic instability, and environmental change. -/- 3. Reduced Conflict and Greater Unity -/- The misunderstanding of free will has often fueled ideological, religious, and political conflicts. If the natural laws governing human decision-making had been understood earlier, societies might have been more tolerant and cooperative. Recognizing that all human behavior follows the same universal principles could have fostered greater empathy and reduced the perceived differences between cultures, religions, and ideologies. -/- With a shared understanding of the principles guiding human decision-making, global cooperation might have replaced competition and conflict. Nations could have worked together to solve collective challenges rather than pursuing dominance and control. Wars motivated by ideological or political misunderstandings might have been minimized, replaced by diplomatic efforts grounded in the recognition of shared human tendencies and needs. -/- 4. Ethical and Responsible Leadership -/- Leadership, when uninformed by natural laws, often falls prey to short-term interests, corruption, and ideological biases. If the principles of free will had been solved and implemented in governance structures long ago, leaders might have been more responsible, rational, and ethical in their decision-making. The universal law of balance would have served as a guiding principle, reminding leaders that any imbalance—whether through unjust policies, social inequality, or environmental neglect—would ultimately result in societal dysfunction. -/- Policies and laws would have been crafted with long-term societal balance in mind. Corruption, misinformation, and manipulation would have been less effective in influencing public opinion, as a well-educated population would have recognized and rejected such tactics. As a result, governance might have been more transparent, just, and aligned with the common good. -/- 5. Ethical Technological Advancement -/- The advancement of science and technology would also have followed a more ethical trajectory. If societies had understood the natural laws behind decision-making, innovations would have been developed with greater consideration for their long-term impact. Technologies such as artificial intelligence, automation, and biotechnology would likely have been designed and implemented with a focus on societal well-being rather than profit alone. -/- For instance, environmental considerations might have been prioritized in industrial development, preventing the large-scale pollution seen during the Industrial Revolution. Similarly, AI systems might have been developed from the outset with safeguards to ensure they served humanity’s best interests, minimizing the ethical concerns that exist today. -/- 6. A World with Less Human Suffering -/- Perhaps the most profound impact of solving the free will problem earlier would have been a significant reduction in human suffering. Poverty, inequality, crime, and social unrest often stem from decisions made without an understanding of natural laws. If societies had recognized the importance of balance, fairness, and cause-and-effect relationships in human interactions, many of these societal problems might have been prevented. -/- Healthcare systems, for example, might have prioritized preventive care based on the understanding of physical and mental health as interconnected systems. Economic policies could have focused on equitable wealth distribution, reducing poverty and enhancing social cohesion. Social programs might have been more effective, addressing the root causes of issues rather than merely managing symptoms. -/- 7. A Global Collaborative Civilization -/- Finally, solving the free will problem early on could have fostered a more unified and collaborative global civilization. The realization that human decision-making is governed by universal laws would have underscored the interconnectedness of all people, regardless of nationality, culture, or belief system. This understanding might have led to earlier efforts to establish international institutions for global cooperation, ensuring that resources, knowledge, and innovations were shared equitably. -/- Global challenges such as climate change, pandemics, and resource scarcity could have been addressed through collective action rather than individualistic or nationalistic approaches. Humanity might have recognized sooner that its survival and prosperity depend on cooperation and adherence to the same natural laws that govern decision-making. -/- Conclusion -/- If the problem of free will had been solved and its universal formula applied long ago, the world today might have been a more balanced, peaceful, and sustainable place. Societies would have understood the natural laws governing human behavior, leading to better education, more ethical leadership, responsible technological development, and less human suffering. While the world missed this opportunity in the past, the knowledge and application of these principles still offer a path forward. Through a holistic educational approach and global cooperation, it remains possible to build a future aligned with the universal laws of nature and human decision-making. -/- . (shrink)

-/- The Possibility of Advanced Extraterrestrial Aliens Based on the Universal Formula -/- Introduction -/- For centuries, humanity has pondered the existence of extraterrestrial life, particularly advanced alien civilizations. Traditional scientific approaches, such as the Drake Equation and astrobiology, suggest that the vastness of the universe makes alien life probable. However, from the perspective of the universal formula, which is based on the law of balance in nature, the law of karma (cause and effect with system integrity), and feedback mechanisms (...) in decision-making, the existence of advanced extraterrestrial civilizations is not just possible but inevitable. -/- By analyzing how natural laws govern the emergence of intelligence, we can logically infer that civilizations far beyond human capability likely exist. These civilizations would have mastered systemic balance, avoided self-destruction, and possibly even developed interstellar travel or post-biological intelligence. -/- 1. The Universal Law of Balance and the Inevitability of Life -/- The universal law of balance dictates that nature operates through equilibrium, ensuring that systems remain functional and sustainable. This principle applies to everything—from the stability of ecosystems to the fundamental laws of physics governing the universe. -/- If life emerged on Earth due to a balanced set of conditions—such as the right chemical composition, planetary stability, and energy availability—then the same principle must apply elsewhere. The laws of nature are not exclusive to Earth; they are universal. With billions of habitable planets likely existing across the universe, it is logical to assume that the balance necessary for life to emerge has occurred countless times. -/- Moreover, balance is a self-sustaining principle. If life arises in a stable environment, it adapts and evolves. Given enough time, intelligent life is an inevitable product of this natural progression. Civilizations that align themselves with this balance will flourish, while those that disrupt it will collapse. This means that the most advanced alien civilizations are likely those that have achieved a perfect balance between technological progress and ecological sustainability—something humanity is still struggling to accomplish. -/- 2. The Law of Karma and the Evolution of Advanced Civilizations -/- The law of karma, as applied in the universal formula, is more than just cause and effect—it emphasizes system integrity. A system, whether biological, technological, or societal, must function without major defects or errors to remain stable and progress. -/- On Earth, human civilization has advanced through trial and error, but systemic flaws—such as war, environmental destruction, and economic instability—continue to hinder long-term progress. If an alien civilization has successfully maintained system integrity, it would have advanced beyond human limitations. -/- Consider the following possibilities: -/- Civilizations that eliminate self-destructive behaviors (such as war and resource depletion) would naturally progress further. -/- Technological advancements without ecological destruction would ensure long-term survival. -/- A society that maintains balance between individual freedom and collective well-being would prevent societal collapse. -/- If an extraterrestrial civilization has existed for millions of years longer than humanity, it would have had ample time to eliminate inefficiencies, optimize its systems, and master universal laws. Such a civilization could be capable of interstellar travel, planetary engineering, and even forms of intelligence beyond biological limitations. -/- 3. Feedback Mechanisms and the Advancement of Intelligence -/- The universal formula also emphasizes the role of feedback mechanisms in decision-making. Conscious minds, whether individual or collective, continuously adjust their decisions based on external and internal feedback. Intelligence evolves as a response to challenges, learning from past mistakes and adapting to new conditions. -/- This principle applies to both biological evolution and technological progress. On Earth, humanity has reached a point where artificial intelligence, space exploration, and global communication networks are beginning to redefine our civilization. However, if an alien species had a longer evolutionary timeline or superior cognitive abilities, its decision-making processes would be far more advanced. -/- Such a civilization could have: -/- Perfected decision-making systems, eliminating errors in governance, science, and ethics. -/- Transcended biological limitations, integrating AI, cybernetics, or even consciousness transfer. -/- Developed energy-efficient technology, harnessing quantum mechanics or zero-point energy. -/- Achieved space colonization, expanding across star systems while maintaining balance with nature. -/- Since intelligence operates as a feedback loop with its environment, any extraterrestrial civilization that has successfully aligned itself with natural laws would have minimized existential threats and maximized its evolutionary potential. -/- 4. The Interconnectedness of Systems and the Cosmic Network of Intelligence -/- One of the most profound implications of the universal formula is the interconnectedness of all systems. If all things in nature interact within a greater balance, then intelligence itself is part of this cosmic network. -/- Humanity is just beginning to understand its place in this network through AI, space exploration, and quantum physics. However, a far more advanced species could have already: -/- Mapped out the structure of the universe, including the nature of consciousness and reality. -/- Created interstellar communication networks, allowing different civilizations to connect. -/- Mastered the art of influencing less developed species, guiding them toward balance and stability. -/- If advanced alien civilizations exist, their presence may already be subtly influencing humanity—perhaps through unexplained phenomena, scientific inspiration, or even indirect guidance in our development. -/- 5. Why Haven’t We Encountered Them? The Fermi Paradox and the Universal Formula -/- The Fermi Paradox questions why, despite the high probability of extraterrestrial life, we have not yet detected any evidence of it. The universal formula provides several possible answers: -/- Most advanced civilizations prioritize balance and secrecy to avoid disrupting less advanced societies. -/- They operate at a higher level of intelligence (post-biological entities, quantum consciousness, or AI-based civilizations) that we cannot yet perceive. -/- Humanity is not yet ready for contact, as we have not achieved the necessary systemic balance. -/- Some UFO phenomena could be evidence of their existence, but human understanding is too limited to fully comprehend their nature. -/- If balance, system integrity, and feedback-driven intelligence are the key principles governing the universe, then contact with advanced extraterrestrials will likely only occur when humanity reaches a sufficient level of stability and understanding. -/- Conclusion: The Universal Formula Supports the Existence of Advanced Extraterrestrials -/- By applying the universal law of balance, the law of karma, and feedback mechanisms in intelligence, the existence of advanced extraterrestrial civilizations becomes not just possible, but a natural outcome of cosmic evolution. -/- If balance is a fundamental law, then intelligent life must have emerged countless times throughout the universe. -/- If system integrity determines progress, then advanced civilizations must have mastered technological, ethical, and ecological balance. -/- If intelligence operates through feedback, then the most successful civilizations will have refined their decision-making to near-perfection. -/- If all systems are interconnected, then extraterrestrial intelligence is part of a cosmic network that we have yet to fully perceive. -/- The next step for humanity is not just to search for extraterrestrial life, but to align itself with these universal principles. Only then can we hope to understand, communicate with, or even become part of a greater cosmic civilization. -/- Perhaps the true path to contact with advanced extraterrestrial beings is not through technology alone—but through achieving a deeper balance within ourselves and our world. -/- . (shrink)

Ignorance as the Root Cause of All Human and Societal Problems -/- Throughout history, humanity has struggled with a wide range of issues, from poverty and war to corruption and environmental destruction. While these problems may seem complex and varied, they all share a common root cause: ignorance. Ignorance, defined as a lack of knowledge, awareness, or understanding, is the fundamental source of poor decision-making, social injustice, and systemic failures. It is the invisible force that allows harmful ideologies to persist, (...) enables exploitation by those in power, and prevents societies from achieving sustainable progress. Unless ignorance is addressed through a holistic educational approach, humanity will continue to suffer from the same recurring problems. -/- The Consequences of Ignorance -/- 1. Poor Decision-Making and Its Societal Impact -/- Ignorance leads individuals and leaders to make uninformed or irrational decisions. When people lack knowledge about critical subjects—such as economics, science, health, or governance—they are more likely to make choices that harm themselves and others. For instance, ignoring the scientific evidence behind climate change has resulted in environmental destruction, worsening natural disasters, and resource scarcity. Similarly, uninformed political decisions can lead to economic crises, social unrest, and ineffective policies that fail to address the real needs of the people. -/- 2. Manipulation and Exploitation of the Masses -/- A population that is unaware of its rights and the mechanisms of power is easily manipulated by politicians, corporations, and religious institutions. Ignorance allows corruption to thrive, as people may be unaware of the deceitful tactics used by leaders who prioritize personal gain over public welfare. For example, authoritarian regimes often exploit the ignorance of their citizens by spreading propaganda, suppressing dissent, and maintaining a false sense of national progress. Without critical thinking skills, people fall victim to misinformation, fake news, and ideological manipulation. -/- 3. Religious and Ideological Conflicts -/- History is filled with wars and conflicts rooted in religious and ideological ignorance. When individuals blindly follow dogma without questioning its validity or understanding different perspectives, intolerance and discrimination arise. Religious extremism, racial discrimination, and cultural biases are often fueled by a lack of knowledge about diversity and human unity. Ignorance fosters division among people, making it difficult to achieve peace and cooperation in society. -/- 4. Resistance to Change and Innovation -/- Ignorance creates fear of the unknown, leading societies to resist progress. Scientific discoveries and technological advancements often face opposition because people do not understand them or perceive them as threats to tradition. For example, when the printing press was invented, religious authorities opposed it because it allowed the spread of knowledge that challenged established doctrines. Today, the same resistance can be seen in debates over artificial intelligence, renewable energy, and other innovations that could improve human life but are hindered by fear and misinformation. -/- 5. Social Injustice and Discrimination -/- Ignorance perpetuates social inequalities, as people fail to recognize systemic injustices and their own biases. Racism, sexism, and class discrimination are all products of misunderstanding and misinformation. When people are unaware of the historical and social structures that create inequality, they are less likely to support policies that promote fairness and human rights. Education plays a crucial role in breaking down prejudices and fostering a more just society. -/- 6. Economic Inequality and Poverty -/- Many people remain trapped in poverty due to a lack of financial education and economic literacy. Ignorance about personal finance, investment, and economic systems prevents individuals from making informed decisions that could improve their lives. On a larger scale, nations with poorly educated populations struggle to develop sustainable economies, as corruption, mismanagement, and short-term thinking hinder progress. When citizens understand economic principles, they can demand better governance and policies that promote prosperity for all. -/- 7. Health Crises and Misinformation -/- A lack of knowledge about health and medicine leads to preventable diseases and unnecessary deaths. The COVID-19 pandemic, for example, highlighted how misinformation about vaccines and treatments contributed to the spread of the virus. Ignorance about basic hygiene, nutrition, and medical science continues to be a major problem in many parts of the world. Proper education can empower individuals to take control of their health and make informed decisions that benefit society as a whole. -/- 8. Environmental Destruction -/- Ignorance about ecological balance and sustainability has led to reckless exploitation of natural resources, deforestation, pollution, and climate change. Many people do not understand the long-term consequences of their actions on the environment, resulting in irreversible damage to ecosystems. A well-informed society would prioritize sustainable living and conservation efforts to ensure the survival of future generations. -/- The Solution: A Holistic Educational System -/- To address ignorance at its root, a holistic educational system must be implemented. This system should emphasize: -/- ✅ Critical Thinking and Scientific Literacy – Teaching individuals to analyze information, recognize misinformation, and make rational decisions. ✅ The Universal Law of Balance in Nature – Educating people about how all systems must maintain equilibrium to function effectively, reducing ignorance-driven societal imbalances. ✅ Ethical Decision-Making and Governance – Training future leaders to prioritize balance and sustainability over greed and short-term gains. ✅ Artificial Intelligence and Technology Awareness – Preparing society for technological advancements to prevent exploitation and misuse. ✅ Cultural and Religious Compatibility – Ensuring that education respects religious beliefs while promoting rational and evidence-based thinking. -/- Conclusion -/- Ignorance is the invisible force that fuels human suffering, injustice, and societal collapse. Whether it manifests in poor decision-making, manipulation, resistance to progress, or environmental destruction, its consequences are undeniable. However, ignorance is not an unsolvable problem—it can be eradicated through proper education. A holistic educational system that integrates critical thinking, scientific literacy, and the universal law of balance in nature can empower individuals to make informed choices and build a more just, intelligent, and sustainable society. By addressing ignorance at its core, humanity can finally break free from the cycle of suffering and progress toward a future of true enlightenment and balance. -/- . (shrink)

The article examines key indicators of the demographic crisis in Ukraine, highlighting manifestations of the nation’s aging and natural population decline. It’s determined that understanding and analyzing the demographic situation allows for predicting changes in the size and structure of the student population, which is crucial for the effective development of higher education in Ukraine. Considering the trends of declining birth rates and an aging population, it is important to adapt admission strategies for students and educational programs accordingly. The examination (...) of the demographic crisis helps identify key challenges, such as a decrease in the number of high school graduates, which can impact competition within the higher education environment. The trends examined in the article, including the decline in the birth rate of the Ukrainian population, the aging of the nation, the level of migration, and the loss of the civilian population due to the war, enable us to characterize the situation in Ukraine as depopulation. Notable changes in the demographic landscape and shifts in the population structure occurred after February 24, 2022, including irreversible human losses, population emigration (over 10 million people), and a decline in the average birth rate. A correlation was identified between the number of births each year and the dynamics of educational services’ capacity. It was observed that higher education in Ukraine will confront significant demographic challenges in the next 17 years. In the context of the strategic goal to restore Ukraine’s human capital, the article suggests viewing higher education as an effective instrument of state policy in a cyclical process: attaining higher education, integrating graduates into the national economy, ensuring financial stability, fostering active citizenship, and promoting loyalty to the state—all contributing to an improvement in the demographic situation. (shrink)

The Universal Law of Balance and the Evolution of Galactic Civilizations -/- Human evolution and the development of intelligence in the universe have long been subjects of debate. Traditional evolutionary theory suggests that natural selection and environmental pressures drive the progression of species. However, an alternative perspective, grounded in the concept of the universal law of balance, suggests that evolution—both biological and technological—is not entirely random but follows structured, law-like principles. This framework can be applied not only to human civilization (...) but also to the broader scale of galactic evolution, particularly in the context of the Kardashev Scale of civilizations. -/- The Kardashev Scale and the Necessity of Balance -/- The Kardashev Scale classifies civilizations based on their energy consumption: -/- Type I Civilization: Harnesses all available energy on its home planet. -/- Type II Civilization: Controls energy at the scale of its solar system. -/- Type III Civilization: Utilizes energy from an entire galaxy. -/- Reaching Type III status requires an extraordinary level of advancement in intelligence, technology, and societal organization. However, not all civilizations may reach this level. According to the universal law of balance, civilizations that fail to regulate their energy consumption, population growth, and technological development risk self-destruction before advancing further. -/- The Role of Balance In Evolution -/- Evolutionary progress is often viewed as a chaotic and unpredictable process. However, if intelligence follows structured, universal principles, then only civilizations that maintain a dynamic balance can survive long-term. This means: -/- 1. Sustainable Energy Use: A Type III civilization must extract energy from a galaxy without destabilizing cosmic systems. -/- 2. Social and Political Stability: Societies that succumb to war, inequality, or unsustainable expansion may collapse before reaching advanced stages. -/- 3. Technological Equilibrium: Reckless technological advancement—such as unchecked artificial intelligence—could lead to existential risks. -/- If these principles hold true, then imbalanced civilizations may not survive long enough to reach Type III, supporting a natural selection process on a cosmic scale. -/- The Fermi Paradox and the Survival of Balanced Civilizations -/- The Fermi Paradox questions why, given the vastness of the universe, we have yet to encounter advanced extraterrestrial civilizations. One possible explanation is that many civilizations fail to achieve balance and, as a result, collapse before reaching the intergalactic stage. -/- If the universal law of balance governs evolution, then only a few civilizations may survive long enough to reach Type III. Those that do might play the role of guardians of balance, influencing younger civilizations to prevent their self-destruction. This would suggest that evolution is not entirely random, but shaped by fundamental principles that guide intelligence toward sustainability and equilibrium. -/- Additionally, there is the possibility that highly evolved, non-biological, non-matter pure conscious intelligence exists, acting as a guiding force in human intelligence evolution. This form of intelligence could manifest through scientific and creative endeavors, subtly influencing breakthroughs in technology, philosophy, and art. If such an intelligence operates beyond the physical realm, it may function as a cosmic architect, ensuring that intelligent beings progress in a way that aligns with universal balance and higher-order wisdom. -/- This non-biological intelligence might communicate its influence through inspiration, intuition, and sudden leaps in understanding, guiding human innovation in ways that seem serendipitous. Many historical scientific and artistic revolutions could be seen as moments of deep connection with this intelligence, where humanity receives insights that accelerate its evolutionary trajectory. If such a force exists, it may not directly control human development but rather provide the necessary conditions and knowledge for civilizations to evolve harmoniously. -/- The Future of Earth: At Risk or Aligned with Balance? -/- As Earth advances technologically, it faces critical challenges: -/- Overpopulation and Resource Depletion: If left unchecked, these could lead to environmental and societal collapse. -/- Technological Risks: Artificial intelligence, nuclear warfare, and bioengineering pose existential threats if not balanced with ethical considerations. -/- Global Stability: Without cooperation among nations, achieving long-term sustainability may be impossible. -/- The universal law of balance suggests that civilizations must regulate these factors or risk extinction. If Earth’s trajectory remains imbalanced, it may never reach Type I or beyond. However, if humanity embraces balance as a guiding principle—aligning with the same natural laws that govern evolution—it could be on the path toward long-term survival and eventual intergalactic expansion. -/- Conclusion -/- The evolution of intelligence, both on Earth and on a cosmic scale, appears to follow an underlying set of natural laws. The universal law of balance suggests that only civilizations that achieve stability in resource management, technological development, and societal organization can progress beyond their planetary boundaries. In this sense, evolution is guided—not necessarily by a mystical force, but by the fundamental laws of nature themselves. -/- Furthermore, the possibility of a non-biological, non-matter pure conscious intelligence influencing human evolution adds another dimension to this framework. If intelligence is being subtly guided through scientific and creative advancements, it may indicate that evolution follows a higher cosmic order, ensuring that civilizations do not merely survive but also thrive in alignment with universal balance. -/- If Earth seeks to reach higher stages of development, it must prioritize sustainability, balance, and harmony with its environment. Otherwise, like countless other civilizations that may have existed before us, it risks self-destruction. The key to humanity’s future may not just be technological advancement, but the wisdom to understand and apply the universal law of balance to ensure long-term survival and evolution. -/- . (shrink)

A World Without Poverty: Applying the Universal Law of Balance in Nature -/- Introduction -/- Poverty is not a natural condition but a direct result of wrong decision-making that has ignored the universal law of balance in nature. Despite technological advancements and abundant resources, billions of people suffer from hunger, lack of healthcare, unemployment, and poor living conditions. The root cause of this suffering lies in imbalances in wealth, resources, population, environment, education, governance, and labor, all of which stem (...) from decisions based on false information, greed, and short-term thinking. -/- Moreover, the consequences of wrong decision-making extend beyond poverty. Imbalances create conflicts, social unrest, and major wars as societies compete over limited resources, power, and wealth. If humanity had applied the universal law of balance from the beginning, the world could have prevented not only poverty but also many historical conflicts and wars. This essay explores how wrong decision-making violates natural balance, leading to poverty, conflict, and war—and how applying the universal law of balance could have created a more peaceful and prosperous world. -/- The Role of Correct Information in Decision-Making -/- One of the biggest reasons poverty, conflict, and war exist is because societies have made decisions based on false, incomplete, or manipulated information. When leaders and institutions ignore truth, science, and rational thinking, they create imbalances that harm societies. Some key consequences of wrong information in decision-making include: -/- 1. Economic policies that favor the elite, creating wealth gaps that lead to revolution and unrest. -/- 2. Overexploitation of natural resources, leading to food shortages, climate change, and displacement of communities. -/- 3. Corrupt political decisions, resulting in dictatorship, oppression, and rebellion. -/- 4. Religious and ideological extremism, causing violent conflicts based on misinformation. -/- 5. Militarization and unnecessary wars, driven by propaganda rather than rational diplomacy. -/- If humanity had prioritized correct knowledge, scientific reasoning, and ethical decision-making, many of history’s greatest conflicts—along with the poverty they created—could have been avoided. -/- How Wrong Decisions Create Imbalances That Lead to Poverty, Conflict, and War -/- Poverty, conflict, and war did not occur naturally—they are direct results of wrong decisions that ignored balance. These decisions created major global imbalances, leading to inequality, suffering, and destruction. -/- 1. Economic Imbalance: Extreme Wealth Concentration Leads to Revolutions -/- Wrong Decision: Allowing unregulated capitalism and corrupt governments to concentrate wealth in the hands of a few. -/- Effect: Economic inequality fuels resentment, leading to violent revolutions and class wars. -/- Example: The French Revolution (1789) was caused by extreme wealth inequality. The monarchy and aristocracy controlled all resources, while the poor struggled to survive. This led to mass uprisings, executions, and civil war. -/- 2. Resource Imbalance: Overexploitation Leads to Resource Wars -/- Wrong Decision: Overexploiting natural resources instead of managing them sustainably. -/- Effect: Countries fight over limited resources, leading to wars, invasions, and territorial disputes. -/- Example: The Iraq War (2003) was largely influenced by oil interests. Instead of investing in renewable energy, global powers fought for control of Iraq’s oil reserves, leading to destruction and economic collapse. -/- 3. Population Imbalance: Overpopulation Causes Social Unrest -/- Wrong Decision: Ignoring the relationship between population growth and available resources, leading to overcrowded cities and slums. -/- Effect: High unemployment, poverty, and crime increase, leading to violent uprisings. -/- Example: The Arab Spring (2010-2012) began as protests over unemployment and poverty in overpopulated countries like Tunisia, Egypt, and Syria. It led to government collapses, civil wars, and massive refugee crises. -/- 4. Environmental Imbalance: Climate Change Causes Wars Over Survival -/- Wrong Decision: Destroying forests, polluting water sources, and overfishing for short-term economic gain. -/- Effect: Droughts, food shortages, and mass migrations force nations into conflicts over survival. -/- Example: The Syrian Civil War (2011-present) was worsened by a climate-induced drought that forced rural populations into cities, increasing tensions and contributing to violent conflict. -/- 5. Educational Imbalance: Ignorance and Misinformation Fuel War and Extremism -/- Wrong Decision: Underfunding education and spreading propaganda instead of critical thinking. -/- Effect: People are easily manipulated into war and violence based on false ideologies. -/- Example: Nazi Germany used false racial theories and propaganda to justify war and genocide, leading to World War II (1939-1945). Had people been educated in critical thinking and ethics, they might have resisted such dangerous ideologies. -/- 6. Political Imbalance: Corrupt Leadership Leads to War and Oppression -/- Wrong Decision: Leaders prioritizing power and greed over human welfare. -/- Effect: Dictatorships, oppression, and civil wars. -/- Example: World War I (1914-1918) was caused by political greed and imperialist ambitions, leading to millions of deaths and widespread poverty. -/- 7. Labor Imbalance: Worker Exploitation Leads to Revolutions and Strikes -/- Wrong Decision: Allowing corporations to exploit workers while keeping profits concentrated at the top. -/- Effect: Poor working conditions lead to strikes, protests, and violent uprisings. -/- Example: The Russian Revolution (1917) was triggered by poor working conditions, low wages, and food shortages, leading to the collapse of the Russian monarchy and the rise of the Soviet Union. -/- How the Universal Law of Balance Could Have Prevented Poverty, Conflict, and War -/- If the universal law of balance in nature had been applied, humanity would have: -/- 1. Used Correct Information to Make Rational Decisions -/- Governments would have made policies based on science, fairness, and sustainability, not propaganda. -/- Example: Nordic countries (Denmark, Norway) use fact-based governance, leading to economic stability and low poverty rates. -/- 2. Balanced Economic Systems -/- Wealth would have been distributed fairly instead of accumulating in the hands of a few. -/- Example: Switzerland has balanced capitalism with social protections, avoiding economic collapses and revolutions. -/- 3. Managed Resources Sustainably -/- Instead of overexploitation, societies would have invested in renewable energy and conservation. -/- Example: Costa Rica has preserved forests and developed eco-tourism, avoiding conflicts over resource scarcity. -/- 4. Controlled Population Growth to Match Resources -/- Governments would have balanced population growth through education and healthcare policies. -/- Example: Thailand used education and healthcare investment to stabilize its population and economy. -/- 5. Provided Universal Access to Education -/- People would have been educated on critical thinking, ethics, and sustainability. -/- Example: Finland offers free education, ensuring that people are informed and less vulnerable to war propaganda. -/- 6. Established Just and Accountable Governments -/- Leaders would have been scientifically trained in governance, ethics, and sustainability, preventing corruption. -/- Example: Switzerland’s decentralized system ensures fair leadership and stability. -/- 7. Ensured Fair Labor Practices -/- Workers would have received fair wages and benefits, preventing revolutions and mass strikes. -/- Example: Germany’s labor laws ensure that workers are well-paid, reducing poverty and social unrest. -/- Conclusion -/- Poverty, conflict, and war are not natural—they are consequences of wrong decisions based on false information, greed, and short-term thinking. Had humanity followed the universal law of balance in nature, we would have created a world with economic fairness, sustainable societies, and peace. By ensuring correct knowledge in decision-making, fair wealth distribution, environmental conservation, and ethical leadership, poverty and war could have been prevented. The future still depends on whether we choose to restore balance—or repeat the mistakes of the past. -/- . (shrink)

Please contact me at maciekzajac1@gmail.com if you are interested in reading a particular chapter or being sent the entire manuscript for private use. -/- The thesis offers a comprehensive argument in favor of a regulationist approach to autonomous weapon systems (AWS). AWS, defined as all military robots capable of selecting or engaging targets without direct human involvement, are an emerging and potentially deeply transformative military technology subject to very substantial ethical controversy. AWS have both their enthusiasts and their detractors, prominently (...) advocating for a global preemptive ban on AWS development and use. Rejecting both positions, the author outlines a middle-of-the-road regulationist approach that is neither overly restrictive nor overly permissive. The disqualifying flaws of the rival prohibitionist approach are demonstrated in the process. After defining the core term of autonomy in weapon systems, the practical difficulties involved in applying an arms control regime to AWS are analyzed. The analysis shows that AWS are an extremely regulation-resistant technology. This feature when combined with their assumed high military utility makes a ban framework extremely costly to impose and enforce. As such it is ultimately very likely to fail at the benefit of the most unscrupulous international actors and at a very substantial risk to those abiding with international law. Consequently, to be ethically viable, a prohibitionist framework would need to offer substantial moral benefits impossible to attain through the rival regulationist approach. The remainder of the thesis undertakes to demonstrate that this is not the case. Comparing the considerations of military and strategic necessity to humanitarian concerns most commonly voiced by prohibitionists requires finding a common denominator for all values being referred to. Consequently, the thesis proceeds to show that both kinds of concerns are ultimately reducible to respect for basic human rights of all stakeholders, and so that the prohibitionist and regulationist approach may ultimately be compared in terms of consequences their adoption would generate for basic human rights realization. The author then evaluates both the potential humanitarian benefits, and the potential humanitarian hazards of AWS introduction. The benefits of leaving frontline combat to machines are outlined, with the unique kinds of suffering that would be abolished by such a development being described in detail. The arguments against AWS adoption are then divided into three classes: arguments related to alleged impossibility of compliance with The Laws of Armed Conflict, non-consequentialist and broad consequentialist arguments. This analysis, which comprises the greater part of the entire thesis, shows that the concerns behind compliance arguments are indeed substantial and have to be accommodated via a complex framework of best practices, regulations and localized restrictions on some kinds of AWS or AWS use in particular environments. They do not, however, justify a universal ban on using all the diverse forms of AWS in all environments. Non-consequentialist objections are found either reducible to other classes of arguments or thoroughly unconvincing, sometimes to the point of being actually vacuous. Broad consequentialist concerns are likewise found to be accommodable by regulation, empirically unfounded or causally disconnected from the actions of legitimate actors acquiring AWS, and therefore irrelevant to the moral permissibility of such actions. The author concludes that the proponents of prohibitionism are unable to point to moral benefits substantial enough to justify the costs and risks inherent in the approach. A global ban is, in fact, likely to have a worse humanitarian impact that well-regulated AWS adoption even if the strategic risks are disregarded. On the other hand, the analysis shows that there indeed exists an urgent need to regulate AWS through a variety of technological, procedural and legal solutions. These include, but are not limited to, a temporary moratorium on anti-personnel AWS use, development of internationally verified compliance software and eventual legal requirement of its employment, a temporary moratorium on AWS proliferation to state actors and a ban on their proliferation to non-state agents. (shrink)

Why Gold Is Not a Good Form of Money and the Need for Fiat Currency -/- Throughout history, gold has been used as money due to its scarcity, durability, and universal acceptance. However, as economies evolved, the limitations of gold as a monetary system became apparent. The shift to fiat currency was necessary to enable economic flexibility, stability, and growth. If gold were still the primary form of money, it could create major conflicts and hinder modern financial systems. -/- The (...) Limitations of Gold as Money -/- Gold presents several practical and economic challenges that make it unsuitable as modern money. First, it is not easily divisible or portable, making everyday transactions cumbersome. Carrying or transferring large amounts of gold requires security and infrastructure, adding to costs and inefficiencies. Additionally, its limited supply creates deflationary pressure, as economic growth outpaces gold mining, leading to falling prices and discouraging spending and investment. -/- Gold’s price volatility is another issue. Unlike fiat money, which central banks can regulate, gold’s value fluctuates based on global supply, demand, and geopolitical factors. This instability makes it a poor standard for a stable currency. Moreover, in an increasingly digital economy, gold is impractical for online transactions and electronic banking, where speed and efficiency are crucial. -/- Perhaps the most significant problem with a gold-based monetary system is the inflexibility it imposes on monetary policy. Governments and central banks use tools such as adjusting interest rates and increasing the money supply to manage inflation, recession, and economic growth. A gold standard would severely limit this ability, making financial crises more severe and recoveries slower. -/- The Risks of a Gold-Based Economy -/- If gold remained the primary form of money, it could create major economic and geopolitical conflicts. Gold is not evenly distributed worldwide, meaning nations with larger reserves would have disproportionate economic power, potentially leading to conflicts over resource control. Countries without sufficient gold would struggle to maintain their currencies, leading to trade wars and financial instability. -/- Additionally, the pursuit of gold could drive resource wars and environmental destruction. Nations and corporations would compete aggressively for gold mining rights, leading to exploitation, deforestation, and pollution, particularly in resource-rich but politically unstable regions. Black markets, smuggling, and gold hoarding would further destabilize economies, making it difficult to maintain financial stability. -/- A gold-based economy also increases the risk of severe economic crises. Since the money supply would be limited to gold reserves, liquidity shortages could trigger deflation, making debts harder to repay and causing widespread economic hardship. During recessions, governments would lack the flexibility to inject money into the economy, worsening unemployment and social unrest. -/- The Need for Fiat Currency -/- The transition to fiat money was essential to avoid these problems and allow economies to function efficiently. Unlike gold, fiat money is not limited by physical supply, enabling governments to expand the money supply in response to economic needs. This prevents deflation and ensures steady economic growth. -/- Fiat currency also provides better control over monetary policy. Central banks can adjust interest rates, inflation, and money supply to stabilize the economy. This flexibility was crucial in handling financial crises such as the Great Depression (1929) and the 2008 Financial Crisis, where governments needed to inject liquidity into markets. -/- Additionally, fiat money allows for stability in financial markets and global trade. Unlike gold, which fluctuates based on external factors, central banks can take direct actions to stabilize their currencies. Modern economies rely on digital transactions, banking systems, and credit markets, which would be nearly impossible under a gold-based system. -/- Furthermore, using fiat currency avoids conflicts over gold reserves and eliminates the need for large-scale mining operations that harm the environment. It also enables global cooperation through financial institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, helping maintain economic balance worldwide. -/- Conclusion -/- While gold was historically valuable as a medium of exchange, it is not suitable for the complexities of modern economies. Its physical limitations, deflationary risks, and geopolitical tensions make it impractical. The shift to fiat currency was necessary to allow economic growth, stability, and flexibility. Despite concerns about inflation, fiat money enables better financial management, global trade, and crisis prevention, making it the essential foundation of the modern financial system. -/- . (shrink)

Since the beginning of humanity and up till now, education is a cornerstone in building human communities. No real social development will take place unless there are scientific and specific education principles. Pursuing the human march is the best example. During the Greek times, the philosophers focused their attention on education. Plato's Academy and Lyceum Aristotle's are educational institutes which produced designs for educational curricula delineated by Plato in his Republic and Aristotle in Nichomachean Ethics. Within Islamic heritage, Prophet Mohamed (...) (Peace Be Upon Him) freed the prisoner of war when he taught ten Muslims literacy. Muslim thinkers focused on education .Al- Farabi was a cultural adviser for organizing educational affairs at the court of Sayf ad-Daulah Ibn Hamdan in Damascus, and during the rule of sultan Abo Yakub Youssef ,Ibn Tufail organized the educational affairs in Al Andalus. Dar Al Hekma in Baghdad is a model for the standard educational institute in Arab Muslim civilization. The curriculum is the practical translation of educational objectives, plans and orientations. Curricula makers seek to make better live in human societies. Most contemporary societies departed the traditional curriculum which based on students theoretical knowledge. Accordingly their perception is confirmed through tests. This transformation took place as a result of the industrial revolution which focused on vocational education in addition to what the two great philosophers Francis Beckon, Jean Jack Roseau and the fruits of the psychological though which connects between cognitive education and physical, mental and emotional preparation. For all these reasons as well as other reasons, the curriculum with its modern concept that contradicts with the classical concept, is the result of the interaction between the student, the teacher, the environment, and the culture of the society. The affecting factors are human, social, natural and intellectual . Countries differ in the design of curricula. Some develop them according to the needs of work market while other countries consider the opposite. It is not the market which controls science and culture. Rather, culture drives the market but slow reading affirms that curricula should be developed according to the needs of their societies. Thus, we witness variations taking place in our educational curricula from time to time. We always call upon the most progressive and tend to the most preferable. In this paper, I discussed a number of issues to answer the research main question: why do we develop curricula in human and social sciences? (shrink)

Objective: The study was conducted to evaluate profiles, demographical data, diagnostic, clinical and treatment approaches in relation to the cases of diagnosed head and neck tuberculosis after the start of the Syrian civil war in 2011. The aim of the study is to share current knowledge on head and neck tuberculosis and to investigate whether there is an epidemiological change with the admission of immigrants after the start of the Syrian civil war. -/- Methods: Demographic data, contact history, relapse, localization, (...) tuberculin test, BCG vaccination and treatment duration are evaluated variables. Two groups were created. The first group was diagnosed with head and neck tuberculosis between 2006 and 2011 before the outbreak of the Syrian civil war, and the second group was diagnosed between 2012 and 2017 after the war in Syria caused hundreds of thousands of Syrian citizens to flee their homes and cross the border into Turkey. -/- Results: Head and neck tuberculosis cases tend to increase after the year of 2012. The number of diagnosed non-Turkish citizens expand after the year of 2012 and reach the highest number in 2017. BCG vaccination status and contact history were found to be the only variables that display statistical significance between the groups. -/- Conclusions: The number of head and neck tuberculosis cases increased after the Syrian war began due to insufficient rates of vaccination among the Syrian population and this population’s overcrowded living environment in Turkey. The burden of these crises affects a region rather than the whole country. (shrink)

When you type the word “serendipity” in a word-processor application such as Microsoft Word, the autocorrection engine suggests you choose other words like “luck” or “fate”. This correcting act turns out to be incorrect. However, it points to the reality that serendipity is not a familiar English word and can be misunderstood easily. Serendipity is a very much scientific concept as it has been found useful in numerous scientific discoveries, pharmaceutical innovations, and numerous humankind’s technical and technological advances. Therefore, there (...) have been many books written around the concept. So why do we need this additional book? This is not just another book about serendipity. It has evolved from the Editor’s question lingering for a decade after finishing his widely cited article (coauthored with Prof. Nancy K. Napier of Boise State University, ID, USA) “Serendipity as a strategic advantage?” in T. Wilkinson’s edited volume Strategic Management in the 21st Century, published by Praeger. The Editor and contributing authors have tried to achieve the following in this title. Demystifying the Serendipity Myth The phenomenon of serendipity has always been thought of as a “miracle”. It is the mystery of human innovation and one of the ultimate secrets of our society. But serendipity is not just a lucky coincidence nor any hidden conspiracy. This book explores the science of the information process behind this seemingly miraculous phenomenon. It connects human society with nature, going back to the root of our existence and looking at the flame of survival to discover the harmony in making creativity. Presenting the nuts and bolts of being an adventurer of science The authors present their conceptual investigations into serendipity’s nature and its mechanism by examining interesting real events and stories. The content is thought-provoking, and readers are led to question and explore their own life stories and problems along the journey of reading this book. Catching an elusive high-value target requires great strategies and efforts. But there are no dark secrets here because this is the “way of nature” – how we humans have always strived for innovation without realizing the blueprints behind such processes. Unlike other books on serendipity, this book will show you that a powerful “secret” is closer than you think. Delivering practical uses for different audiences By understanding the conditionality and survival drivers of serendipity, individuals or organizations can make better decisions on creating the right environment to facilitate the encounter and attainment of this valuable phenomenon. For scientists: With clear explanations of the information processes underlying serendipity, flexible theoretical frameworks of mindsponge and the 3D principle of creativity, researchers are provided with the tools they need to dig deeper into their own fields of study and find practical applications, be it psychology, economics, sociology, or anything that involves innovation (which is, in fact, every scientific discipline). For curious casual readers: Everybody needs innovation to make breakthroughs or spice up one’s life. If you think great ideas come to people randomly from an unknown fairy place, this book will convince you otherwise without taking away that awe and wonder. But above all, you will know how to become more creative, scientifically and straightforwardly, with no snake oil and no weird tricks. For ambitious business people: The flame that brought about great successes throughout human history is within you. But you can only use it if you understand it. While others wait for serendipity to come, you will be able to actively hunt for those precious moments. As it has always been: the best hunters triumph, not the passive wanderers. And in this age of information chaos, finding the golden fruits is not easy. Those from information technology know this problem well, and this book is the treasure map that they have been seeking to navigate that stormy ocean looking for jewels. Like a kingfisher tracking its prey through the water, waiting to gracefully strike, with serendipity, a person seizes the prize of creativity amid the chaos of life. ¤ ¤ ¤ Official introduction: The book explores the nature, underlying causes, and the information processing mechanism of serendipity. It proposes that natural or social survival demands drive serendipity, and serendipity is conditional on the environment and the mindset, on both individual and collective levels. From Darwin's evolution theory to Sun Tzu's war tactics, major innovations throughout human history are unified by this key concept. In the rapidly changing world, information is abundant but rather chaotic. The adaptive power of serendipity allows people to notice treasures within this wild sea, but only for those who understand how it works. To increase the probability of encountering and attaining serendipity, one should employ the mindsponge mechanism and the 3D process of creativity, for without these frameworks, serendipity is truly an elusive target. The book also discusses methods to build environments and cultures rich in navigational and useful information to maximize the chance of finding and capitalizing on serendipity. As a skill, serendipity has a resemblance to how kingfishers observe and hunt their prey. (shrink)

Ever since 1988, Vietnam has successfully diversified and multilateralised its relationships, whilst placing a strong degree of focus on integration into the international political economy. This multidirectional foreign policy is designed to contribute to a peaceful international environment and a stable domestic one in order to promote economic growth and build up the aggregate strength of the country. At the same time, it is designed to boost the country’s autonomy, protect its sovereignty and territorial integrity, as well as hedge (...) against potential threats. This multidirectional foreign policy has contributed significantly to the economic reformist agenda, formally initiated at the 1986 Sixth Party Congress, otherwise known as Doi Moi. Additionally, it has boosted Vietnam’s international profile and reversed the diplomatic isolation it faced as the Cold War came to a close. As such, multidirectionalism has become a fundamental aspect of the Doi Moi process. This thesis traces the learning process since multidirectionalism’s inception and argues that this learning process, along with the economic benefits reaped, have evolved into positive memories for the Vietnamese Communist Party. This means multidirectionalism continues to be reinforced and as a result, these memories shape Vietnam’s continued expansion of that policy. Additionally, this thesis also offers a conceptual definition to the term multidirectionalism as well as explores the mechanisms through which Vietnam implements this policy. (shrink)

Moral reasoning traditionally distinguishes two types of evil:moral (ME) and natural (NE). The standard view is that ME is the product of human agency and so includes phenomena such as war,torture and psychological cruelty; that NE is the product of nonhuman agency, and so includes natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods, disease and famine; and finally, that more complex cases are appropriately analysed as a combination of ME and NE. Recently, as a result of developments in autonomous agents in cyberspace, (...) a new class of interesting and important examples of hybrid evil has come to light. In this paper, it is called artificial evil (AE) and a case is made for considering it to complement ME and NE to produce a more adequate taxonomy. By isolating the features that have led to the appearance of AE, cyberspace is characterised as a self-contained environment that forms the essential component in any foundation of the emerging field of Computer Ethics (CE). It is argued that this goes someway towards providing a methodological explanation of why cyberspace is central to so many of CE's concerns; and it is shown how notions of good and evil can be formulated in cyberspace. Of considerable interest is how the propensity for an agent's action to be morally good or evil can be determined even in the absence of biologically sentient participants and thus allows artificial agents not only to perpetrate evil (and fort that matter good) but conversely to `receive' or `suffer from' it. The thesis defended is that the notion of entropy structure, which encapsulates human value judgement concerning cyberspace in a formal mathematical definition, is sufficient to achieve this purpose and, moreover, that the concept of AE can be determined formally, by mathematical methods. A consequence of this approach is that the debate on whether CE should be considered unique, and hence developed as a Macroethics, may be viewed, constructively,in an alternative manner. The case is made that whilst CE issues are not uncontroversially unique, they are sufficiently novel to render inadequate the approach of standard Macroethics such as Utilitarianism and Deontologism and hence to prompt the search for a robust ethical theory that can deal with them successfully. The name Information Ethics (IE) is proposed for that theory. Itis argued that the uniqueness of IE is justified by its being non-biologically biased and patient-oriented: IE is an Environmental Macroethics based on the concept of data entity rather than life. It follows that the novelty of CE issues such as AE can be appreciated properly because IE provides a new perspective (though not vice versa). In light of the discussion provided in this paper, it is concluded that Computer Ethics is worthy of independent study because it requires its own application-specific knowledge and is capable of supporting a methodological foundation, Information Ethics. (shrink)

This paper traces how media representations encouraged enthusiasts, youth and skilled volunteers to participate actively in science and technology during the twentieth century. It assesses how distinctive discourses about scientific amateurs positioned them with respect to professionals in shifting political and cultural environments. In particular, the account assesses the seminal role of a periodical, Scientific American magazine, in shaping and championing an enduring vision of autonomous scientific enthusiasms. Between the 1920s and 1970s, editors Albert G. Ingalls and Clair L. Stong (...) shepherded generations of adult ‘amateur scientists’. Their columns and books popularized a vision of independent non-professional research that celebrated the frugal ingenuity and skills of inveterate tinkerers. Some of these attributes have found more recent expression in present-day ‘maker culture’. The topic consequently is relevant to the historiography of scientific practice, science popularization and science education. Its focus on independent non-professionals highlights political dimensions of agency and autonomy that have often been implicit for such historical actors.The paper argues that the Scientific American template of adult scientific amateurism contrasted with other representations: those promoted by earlier periodicals and by a science education organization, Science Service, and by the national demands for recruiting scientific labour during and after the Second World War. The evidence indicates that advocates of the alternative models had distinctive goals and adapted their narrative tactics to reach their intended audiences, which typically were conceived as young persons requiring instruction or mentoring. By contrast, the monthly Scientific American columns established a long-lived and stable image of the independent lay scientist. (shrink)

This paper centers on the implicit metaphysics beyond the Theory of Relativity and the Principle of Indeterminacy – two revolutionary theories that have changed 20th Century Physics – using the perspective of Husserlian Transcedental Phenomenology. Albert Einstein (1879-1955) and Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976) abolished the theoretical framework of Classical (Galilean- Newtonian) physics that has been complemented, strengthened by Cartesian metaphysics. Rene Descartes (1596- 1850) introduced a separation between subject and object (as two different and self- enclosed substances) while Galileo and Newton (...) did the “mathematization” of the world. Newtonian physics, however, had an inexplicable postulate of absolute space and absolute time – a kind of geometrical framework, independent of all matter, for the explication of locality and acceleration. Thus, Cartesian modern metaphysics and Galilean- Newtonian physics go hand in hand, resulting to socio- ethical problems, materialism and environmental destruction. Einstein got rid of the Newtonian absolutes and was able to provide a new foundation for our notions of space and time: the four (4) dimensional space- time; simultaneity and the constancy of velocity of light, and the relativity of all systems of reference. Heisenberg, following the theory of quanta of Max Planck, told us of our inability to know sub- atomic phenomena and thus, blurring the line between the Cartesian separation of object and subject, hence, initiating the crisis of the foundations of Classical Physics. But the real crisis, according to Edmund Husserl (1859-1930) is that Modern (Classical) Science had “idealized” the world, severing nature from what he calls the Lebenswelt (life- world), the world that is simply there even before it has been reduced to mere mathematical- logical equations. Husserl thus, aims to establish a new science that returns to the “pre- scientific” and “non- mathematized” world of rich and complex phenomena: phenomena as they “appear to human consciousness”. To overcome the Cartesian equation of subject vs. object (man versus environment), Husserl brackets the external reality of Newtonian Science (epoché = to put in brackets, to suspend judgment) and emphasizes (1) the meaning of “world” different from the “world” of Classical Physics, (2) the intentionality of consciousness (L. in + tendere = to tend towards, to be essentially related to or connected to) which means that even before any scientific- logical description of the external reality, there is always a relation already between consciousness and an external reality. The world is the equiprimordial existence of consciousness and of external reality. My paper aims to look at this new science of the pre- idealized phenomena started by Husserl (a science of phenomena as they appear to conscious, human, lived experience, hence he calls it phenomenology), centering on the life- world and the intentionality of consciousness, as providing a new way of looking at ourselves and the world, in short, as providing a new metaphysics (as an antidote to Cartesian metaphysics) that grounds the revolutionary findings of Einstein and Heisenberg. The environmental destruction, technocracy, socio- ethical problems in the modern world are all rooted in this Galilean- Newtonian- Cartesian interpretation of the relationship between humans and the world after the crumbling of European Medieval Ages. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) comments that the modern world is going toward a nihilism (L. nihil = nothingness) at the turn of the century. Now, after two World Wars and the dropping of Atomic bomb, the capitalism and imperialism on the one hand, and on the other hand the poverty, hunger of the non- industrialized countries alongside destruction of nature (i.e., global warming), Nietzsche might be correct: unless humanity changes the way it looks at humanity and the kosmos. The works of Einstein, Heisenberg and Husserl seem to be pointing the way for us humans to escape nihilism by a “great existential transformation.” What these thinkers of post- modernity (after Cartesian/ Newtonian/ Galilean modernity) point to are: a) a new therapeutic way of looking at ourselves and our world (metaphysics) and b) a new and corrective notion of “rationality” (different from the objectivist, mathematico- logical way of thinking). This paper is divided into four parts: 1) A summary of Classical Physics and a short history of Quantum Theory 2) Einstein’s Special and General Relativity and Heisenberg’s Indeterminacy Principle 3) Husserl’s discussion of the Crisis of Europe, the life- world and intentionality of consciousness 4) A Metaphysics of Relativity and Indeterminacy and a Corrective notion of Rationality in Husserl’s Phenomenology . (shrink)

Science is the basis for managing the affairs of life and human activities, and living without knowledge is a form of wandering and a kind of loss. Using scientific methods helps us understand the foundations of choice, decision-making, and adopting the right solutions when solutions abound and options are numerous. Operational research is considered the best that scientific development has provided because its methods depend on the application of scientific methods in solving complex issues and the optimal use of available (...) resources in various fields, private and governmental work in peace and war, in politics and economics, in planning and implementation, and in various aspects of life. Its basic essence is to use the data provided for the issue under study to build a mathematical model that is the optimal solution. It is the basis on which decision makers rely in managing institutions and companies, and when operations research methods meet with the neutrosophic teacher, we get ideal solutions that take into account all the circumstances and fluctuations that may occur in the work environment over time. One of the most important operations research methods is the linear programming method. Which prompted us to reformulate the linear models, the graphical method, and the simplex method, which are used to obtain the optimal solution for linear models using the concepts of neutrosophic science. In this research, and as a continuation of what we presented previously, we will reformulate the modified simplex algorithm that was presented to address the difficulty that we were facing when applying the direct simplex algorithm. It is the large number of calculations required to be performed in each step of the solution, which requires a lot of time and effort. (shrink)

Pogge, O'Neill, Elkins, and others propose the "dispersal" or "unbundling" of state sovereignty, allegedly to disincentivize war, to foster global and regional cooperation on environment, justice, and other issues of naturally supra-state concern, as well as to tailor some functions or jurisdictions to more local, regional, or differently shaped geographical areas. All these proposals are guilty of function-atomism, i.e. they ignore the massive benefits of clustering identically bounded functions or jurisdictions in a single territory. These benefits include the effective (...) enforcement of law; the effective production of public goods and deterrence of free-riding; the coinciding of the tax base, law formation and enforcement and sustaining community of media, schools, universities, and other vital institutions; and the fostering of democratic community and participation in a significant political structure. (shrink)

Moral reasoning traditionally distinguishes two types of evil: moral and natural. The standard view is that ME is the product of human agency and so includes phenomena such as war, torture and psychological cruelty; that NE is the product of nonhuman agency, and so includes natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods, disease and famine; and finally, that more complex cases are appropriately analysed as a combination of ME and NE. Recently, as a result of developments in autonomous agents in cyberspace, (...) a new class of interesting and important examples of hybrid evil has come to light. In this paper, it is called artificial evil and a case is made for considering it to complement ME and NE to produce a more adequate taxonomy. By isolating the features that have led to the appearance of AE, cyberspace is characterised as a self-contained environment that forms the essential component in any foundation of the emerging field of Computer Ethics. It is argued that this goes some way towards providing a methodological explanation of why cyberspace is central to so many of CE’s concerns; and it is shown how notions of good and evil can be formulated in cyberspace. Of considerable interest is how the propensity for an agent’s action to be morally good or evil can be determined even in the absence of biologically sentient participants and thus allows artificial agents not only to perpetrate evil but conversely to ‘receive’ or ‘suffer from’ it. The thesis defended is that the notion of entropy structure, which encapsulates human value judgement concerning cyberspace in a formal mathematical definition, is sufficient to achieve this purpose and, moreover, that the concept of AE can be determined formally, by mathematical methods. A consequence of this approach is that the debate on whether CE should be considered unique, and hence developed as a Macroethics, may be viewed, constructively, in an alternative manner. The case is made that whilst CE issues are not uncontroversially unique, they are sufficiently novel to render inadequate the approach of standard Macroethics such as Utilitarianism and Deontologism and hence to prompt the search for a robust ethical theory that can deal with them successfully. The name Information Ethics is proposed for that theory. It is argued that the uniqueness of IE is justified by its being non-biologically biased and patient-oriented: IE is an Environmental Macroethics based on the concept of data entity rather than life. It follows that the novelty of CE issues such as AE can be appreciated properly because IE provides a new perspective. In light of the discussion provided in this paper, it is concluded that Computer Ethics is worthy of independent study because it requires its own application-specific knowledge and is capable of supporting a methodological foundation, Information Ethics. (shrink)

In my view all behavior is an expression of our evolved psychology and so intimately connected to religion, morals and ethics, if one knows how to look at them. -/- Many will find it strange that I spend little time discussing the topics common to most discussions of religion, but in my view it is essential to first understand the generalities of behavior and this necessitates a good understanding of biology and psychology which are mostly noticeable by their absence in (...) works on religion, politics, history, morals and ethics, etc. In my view most such efforts have no grasp at all of the operation of System 2, the slow cortical functions of the brain which can be equated to linguistic behavior or the mind, and which I call the Descriptive Psychology of Higher Order Thought and which I regard as the province of philosophy in the narrow sense. -/- It is my contention that the table of intentionality (rationality, mind, thought, language, personality etc.) that features prominently here describes more or less accurately, or at least serves as an heuristic for, how we think and behave, and so it encompasses not merely philosophy and psychology, but everything else (religion, history, literature, mathematics, politics etc.). Note especially that intentionality and rationality as I (along with Searle, Wittgenstein and others) view it, includes both conscious deliberative System 2 and unconscious automated System 1 actions or reflexes. -/- This collection of articles was written over the last 10 years and revised to bring them up to date (2019). All the articles are about human behavior (as are all articles by anyone about anything), and so about the limitations of having a recent monkey ancestry (8 million years or much less depending on viewpoint) and manifest words and deeds within the framework of our innate psychology as presented in the table of intentionality. As famous evolutionist Richard Leakey says, it is critical to keep in mind not that we evolved from apes, but that in every important way, we are apes. If everyone was given a real understanding of this (i.e., of human ecology and psychology to actually give them some control over themselves), maybe civilization would have a chance. As things are however the leaders of society have no more grasp of things than their constituents and so collapse into anarchy is inevitable is spite of the near universal views that religion, politics or technology can save us. See my Suicidal Utopian Delusions in the 21st Century 5th ed (2019), for a detailed exposition of this view. -/- It is critical to understand why we behave as we do and so I start with a brief review of the logical structure of rationality, which provides some heuristics for the description of language (mind, rationality, personality) and gives some suggestions as to how this relates to the evolution of social behavior. This centers around the two writers I have found the most important in this regard, Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle, whose ideas I combine and extend within the dual system (two systems of thought) framework that has proven so useful in recent thinking and reasoning research. As I note, there is in my view essentially complete overlap between philosophy, in the strict sense of the enduring questions that concern the academic discipline, and the descriptive psychology of higher order thought (behavior). Once one has grasped Wittgenstein’s insight that there is only the issue of how the language game is to be played, one determines the Conditions of Satisfaction (what makes a statement true or satisfied etc.) and that is the end of the discussion. No neurophysiology, no metaphysics, no postmodernism, no theology. -/- Along with many, I see it as the basic religious or moral issue of our times that America and the world are in the process of collapse from excessive population growth, most of it for the last century, and now all of it, due to 3rd world people. Consumption of resources and the addition of 3 billion more ca. 2100 will collapse industrial civilization and bring about starvation, disease, violence and war on a staggering scale. The earth loses at least 1% of its topsoil every year, so as it nears 2100, most of its food growing capacity will be gone. Billions will die and nuclear war is all but certain. In America, this is being hugely accelerated by massive immigration and immigrant reproduction, combined with abuses made possible by democracy. Depraved human nature inexorably turns the dream of democracy and diversity into a nightmare of crime and poverty. China will continue to overwhelm America and the world, as long as it maintains the dictatorship which limits selfishness and permits long term planning. The root cause of collapse is the inability of our innate psychology to adapt to the modern world, which leads people to treat unrelated persons as though they had common interests (which I suggest may be regarded as an unrecognized -- but the commonest and most serious-- psychological problem -- Inclusive Fitness Disorder). This, plus ignorance of basic biology and psychology, leads to the social engineering delusions of the partially educated who control democratic societies. Few understand that if you help one person you harm someone else—there is no free lunch and every single item anyone consumes destroys the earth beyond repair. Consequently, social policies everywhere are unsustainable and one by one all societies without stringent controls on selfishness will collapse into anarchy or dictatorship. Without dramatic and immediate changes, there is no hope for preventing the collapse of America, or any country that follows a democratic system, especially now that the Neomarxist Third World Supremacists are taking control of the USA and other Western Democracies, and helping the Seven Sociopaths who run China to succeed in their plan to eliminate peace and freedom and religion worldwide. Hence my concluding essays. Of course, it is an easily defensible point of view that Artificial Intelligence (aka Artificial Stupidity or Artificial Sociopathy) researchers are even more evil than the Democrats and the CCP, and I make brief comments on this as well. -/- Several articles touch on The One Big Happy Family Delusion, i.e., that we are genetically selected for cooperation with everyone, and that the euphonious ideals of Democracy, Diversity, Equality and Religion will lead us into utopia, if we just manage things correctly (the possibility of politics). Again, the No Free Lunch Principle ought to warn us it cannot be true, and we see throughout history and all over the contemporary world, that without strict controls, selfishness and stupidity gain the upper hand and soon destroy any nation that embraces these delusions. In addition, the monkey mind steeply discounts the future, and so we cooperate in selling our descendant’s heritage for temporary comforts, greatly exacerbating the problems. -/- I describe versions of this delusion (i.e., that we are basically ‘friendly’ if just given a chance) as it appears in some recent books on sociology/biology/economics. Even Sapolsky’s otherwise excellent “Behave” (2017) embraces leftist politics and group selection and gives space to a discussion of whether humans are innately violent. I end with two essays on the great tragedy playing out in America and the world, which can be seen as a direct result of our evolved psychology manifested as the inexorable machinations of System 1. Our psychology, eminently adaptive and eugenic on the plains of Africa from ca. 6 million years ago, when we split from chimpanzees, to ca. 50,000 years ago, when many of our ancestors left Africa (i.e., in the EEA or Environment of Evolutionary Adaptation), is now maladaptive and dysgenic and the source of our Suicidal Utopian Delusions. So, like all discussions of behavior (theology, philosophy, psychology, sociology, biology, anthropology, politics, law, literature, history, economics, soccer strategies, business meetings, etc.), this book is about evolutionary strategies, selfish genes and inclusive fitness (kin selection, natural selection), though of course few grasp this, regardless of whether they are academics or peasants, atheists or fundamentalists. (shrink)

As available intelligence data and information expand in both quantity and variety, new techniques must be deployed for search and analytics. One technique involves the semantic enhancement of data through the creation of what are called ‘ontologies’ or ‘controlled vocabularies.’ When multiple different bodies of heterogeneous data are tagged by means of terms from common ontologies, then these data become linked together in ways which allow more effective retrieval and integration. We describe a simple case study to show how these (...) benefits are being achieved, and we describe our strategy for developing a suite of ontologies to serve the needs of the war-fighter in the ever more complex battlespace environments of the future. (shrink)

Susanne Langer was a student at Radcliffe College between 1916 and 1926---a highly transitional period in the history of American philosophy. Intellectual generalists such as William James, John Dewey, and Josiah Royce had dominated philosophical debates at the turn of the century but the academic landscape gradually started to shift in the years after World War I. Many scholars of the new generation adopted a more piecemeal approach to philosophy---solving clearly delineated, technical puzzles using the so-called “method of logical analysis”. (...) Especially at Harvard, the intellectual climate rapidly changed. The department hired several philosophers who had contributed to the development of symbolic logic---H. M. Sheffer, C. I. Lewis, and A. N. Whitehead---and Harvard quickly began to be viewed as a central hub for analytic philosophy in the United States. This chapter contextualizes Langer’s earliest work by reading it through the lens of this shifting academic environment. Though Harvard did not allow women to take its courses until 1943, Langer is one of the most significant fruits of this period. Her dissertation “A Logical Analysis of Meaning” and her first publications are all illustrations of the approach that came to dictate the American philosophical conversation. By exploring the increased focus on the logical-analytic method and Langer’s attempts to expand the new approach to what she later called “non-discursive” symbolisms, I situate her publications in the intellectual context of the 1920s. (shrink)

This collection of articles was written over the last 10 years and edited to bring them up to date (2019). All the articles are about human behavior (as are all articles by anyone about anything), and so about the limitations of having a recent monkey ancestry (8 million years or much less depending on viewpoint) and manifest words and deeds within the framework of our innate psychology as presented in the table of intentionality. As famous evolutionist Richard Leakey says, it (...) is critical to keep in mind not that we evolved from apes, but that in every important way, we are apes. If everyone was given a real understanding of this (i.e., of human ecology and psychology to actually give them some control over themselves), maybe civilization would have a chance. As things are however the leaders of society have no more grasp of things than their constituents and so collapse into anarchy is inevitable. -/- The first group of articles attempt to give some insight into how we behave that is reasonably free of theoretical delusions. In the next three groups, I comment on three of the principal delusions preventing a sustainable world— technology, religion and politics (cooperative groups). People believe that society can be saved by them, so I provide some suggestions in the rest of the book as to why this is unlikely via short articles and reviews of recent books by well-known writers. -/- It is critical to understand why we behave as we do and so the first section presents articles that try to describe (not explain as Wittgenstein insisted) behavior. I start with a brief review of the logical structure of rationality, which provides some heuristics for the description of language (mind, rationality, personality) and gives some suggestions as to how this relates to the evolution of social behavior. This centers around the two writers I have found the most important in this regard, Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle, whose ideas I combine and extend within the dual system (two systems of thought) framework that has proven so useful in recent thinking and reasoning research. As I note, there is in my view essentially complete overlap between philosophy, in the strict sense of the enduring questions that concern the academic discipline, and the descriptive psychology of higher order thought (behavior). Once one has grasped Wittgenstein’s insight that there is only the issue of how the language game is to be played, one determines the Conditions of Satisfaction (what makes a statement true or satisfied etc.) and that is the end of the discussion. No neurophysiology, no metaphysics, no postmodernism, no theology. -/- It is my contention that the table of intentionality (rationality, mind, thought, language, personality etc.) that features prominently here describes more or less accurately, or at least serves as an heuristic for, how we think and behave, and so it encompasses not merely philosophy and psychology, but everything else (history, literature, mathematics, politics etc.). Note especially that intentionality and rationality as I (along with Searle, Wittgenstein and others) view it, includes both conscious deliberative System 2 and unconscious automated System 1 actions or reflexes. -/- The next section describes the digital delusions, which confuse the language games of System 2 with the automatisms of System one, and so cannot distinguish biological machines (i.e., people) from other kinds of machines (i.e., computers). The ‘reductionist’ claim is that one can ‘explain’ behavior at a ‘lower’ level, but what actually happens is that one does not explain human behavior but a ‘stand in’ for it. Hence the title of Searle’s classic review of Dennett’s book (“Consciousness Explained”)— “Consciousness Explained Away”. In most contexts ‘reduction’ of higher level emergent behavior to brain functions, biochemistry, or physics is incoherent. Even for ‘reduction’ of chemistry or physics, the path is blocked by chaos and uncertainty. Anything can be ‘represented’ by equations, but when they ‘represent’ higher order behavior, it is not clear (and cannot be made clear) what the ‘results’ mean. Reductionist metaphysics is a joke, but most scientists and philosophers lack the appropriate sense of humor. -/- The last section describes The One Big Happy Family Delusion, i.e., that we are selected for cooperation with everyone, and that the euphonious ideals of Democracy, Diversity and Equality will lead us into utopia, if we just manage things correctly (the possibility of politics). Again, the No Free Lunch Principle ought to warn us it cannot be true, and we see throughout history and all over the contemporary world, that without strict controls, selfishness and stupidity gain the upper hand and soon destroy any nation that embraces these delusions. In addition, the monkey mind steeply discounts the future, and so we cooperate in selling our descendant’s heritage for temporary comforts, greatly exacerbating the problems. The only major change in this edition is the addition in the last article of a short discussion of China, a threat to peace and freedom as great as overpopulation and climate change and one to which even most professional scholars and politicians are oblivious so I regarded it as sufficiently important to warrant a new edition. -/- I describe versions of this delusion (i.e., that we are basically ‘friendly’ if just given a chance) as it appears in some recent books on sociology/biology/economics. Even Sapolsky’s otherwise excellent “Behave”(2017) embraces leftist politics and group selection and gives space to a discussion of whether humans are innately violent. I end with an essay on the great tragedy playing out in America and the world, which can be seen as a direct result of our evolved psychology manifested as the inexorable machinations of System 1. Our psychology, eminently adaptive and eugenic on the plains of Africa from ca. 6 million years ago, when we split from chimpanzees, to ca. 50,000 years ago, when many of our ancestors left Africa (i.e., in the EEA or Environment of Evolutionary Adaptation), is now maladaptive and dysgenic and the source of our Suicidal Utopian Delusions. So, like all discussions of behavior (philosophy, psychology, sociology, biology, anthropology, politics, law, literature, history, economics, soccer strategies, business meetings, etc.), this book is about evolutionary strategies, selfish genes and inclusive fitness (kin selection, natural selection). -/- The great mystic Osho said that the separation of God and Heaven from Earth and Humankind was the most evil idea that ever entered the Human mind. In the 20th century an even more evil notion arose, or at least became popular with leftists—that humans are born with rights, rather than having to earn privileges. The idea of human rights is an evil fantasy created by leftists to draw attention away from the merciless destruction of the earth by unrestrained 3rd world motherhood. Thus, every day the population increases by 200,000, who must be provided with resources to grow and space to live, and who soon produce another 200,000 etc. And one almost never hears it noted that what they receive must be taken from those already alive, and their descendants. Their lives diminish those already here in both major obvious and countless subtle ways. Every new baby destroys the earth from the moment of conception. In a horrifically overcrowded world with vanishing resources, there cannot be human rights without destroying the earth and our descendant’s futures. It could not be more obvious, but it is rarely mentioned in a clear and direct way, and one will never see the streets full of protesters against motherhood. -/- The most basic facts, almost never mentioned, are that there are not enough resources in America or the world to lift a significant percentage of the poor out of poverty and keep them there. Even the attempt to do this is already bankrupting America and destroying the world. The earth’s capacity to produce food decreases daily, as does our genetic quality. And now, as always, by far the greatest enemy of the poor is other poor and not the rich. -/- America and the world are in the process of collapse from excessive population growth, most of it for the last century, and now all of it, due to 3rd world people. Consumption of resources and the addition of 4 billion more ca. 2100 will collapse industrial civilization and bring about starvation, disease, violence and war on a staggering scale. The earth loses about 2% of its topsoil every year, so as it nears 2100, most of its food growing capacity will be gone. Billions will die and nuclear war is all but certain. In America, this is being hugely accelerated by massive immigration and immigrant reproduction, combined with abuses made possible by democracy. Depraved human nature inexorably turns the dream of democracy and diversity into a nightmare of crime and poverty. China will continue to overwhelm America and the world, as long as it maintains the dictatorship which limits selfishness. The root cause of collapse is the inability of our innate psychology to adapt to the modern world, which leads people to treat unrelated persons as though they had common interests (which I suggest may be regarded as an unrecognized -- but the commonest and most serious-- psychological problem -- Inclusive Fitness Disorder). This, plus ignorance of basic biology and psychology, leads to the social engineering delusions of the partially educated who control democratic societies. Few understand that if you help one person you harm someone else—there is no free lunch and every single item anyone consumes destroys the earth beyond repair. Consequently, social policies everywhere are unsustainable and one by one all societies without stringent controls on selfishness will collapse into anarchy or dictatorship. Without dramatic and immediate changes, there is no hope for preventing the collapse of America, or any country that follows a democratic system. Hence my concluding essay “Suicide by Democracy”. -/- Those wishing to read my other writings may see Talking Monkeys 2nd ed (2019), The Logical Structure of Philosophy, Psychology, Mind and Language in Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle 2nd ed (2019), Suicide by Democracy 3rd ed (2019), The Logical Stucture of Human Behavior (2019) and Suicidal Utopian Delusions in the 21st Century 4th ed (2019) . (shrink)

At the age of 70 years, Professor Chris Nwamuo is still breaking new grounds in the Theatre, Media and Communication disciplines, not only in the University of Calabar, but also in Cross River University of Technology (CRUTECH) in Cross River State Nigeria, Abia State University in Abia State, Nigeria and many other state, national and international higher institutions of learning. He is tireless in research, clinical in project supervision, stern in the resolution of academic knots and committed to teaching students (...) both at the graduate and undergraduate levels. One would imagine that despite the ever busy schedule of this prolific scholar, including his attendance to family affairs, he still has the time to write out his findings, thoughts and perspectives in the very field that he has worked for more than three decades. One of his most recent works is his book “The Dynamics of International Communication” published in 2016. Communication is the human nutrient that grows a healthy relationship among people and nations of the world. When absent or not properly handled, communication effects result to rumor, grapevines, conflict or in internationally severe cases, war. ‘Communication’ as a term is surrounded by mysteries of comprehension but Nwamuo has attempted an unraveling throughout his years of academic surgeon in the field. Ike (2005:40) define communication as the process by which people share information, ideas and feelings using spoken and written words, body language, personal mannerism and style, the physical environment or anything that adds meaning to a message. Iyorza (2015:11) views communication as the transmission of information, idea or beliefs from the encoder to the decoder with the aim of achieving a common ground of understanding, promoting a course or reacting to given stimuli in the communication encounter. Both definitions share a common characteristic: information or ideas sharing or transmission. (shrink)

I argue for the conditions that eco-sabotage (sabotage involving the protection of animals or the environment) must meet to be a morally permissible form of activism in a liberal democracy. I illustrate my case with Jessica Reznicek and Ruby Montoya’s oil pipeline destruction, the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society’s whale hunt sabotage, and the Valve Turners’ pipeline shut-off, climate necessity-defense. My primary contention is that just as it is permissible to destroy an attacker’s weapon in self- or other-defense, it is (...) permissible to engage in some forms of eco-sabotage. Taking inspiration from just war theory, I use the conditions of just cause, reasonable chance of success, proportionality, necessity, and discrimination to both conceptualize eco-sabotage as defense and illustrate the justificatory burden the eco-saboteur must meet. Often eco-sabotage is doubly pro-tanto wrong because it is illegal and involves property destruction. Overcoming these hurdles is particularly difficult because in seemingly bypassing democratic means of dispute resolution, the eco-saboteur seemingly coerces the other members of society by forcing idiosyncratic views upon them. Non-anthropocentric eco-sabotage grounded in defense of animal rights has mixed results regarding the democratic objection just described. I argue that anthropocentric eco-sabotage, grounded in defense of human rights, has the best chance of overcoming this objection, provided a persuasive case can be made for its reasonable chance of success. Passing a reasonable chance of success also causes problems for non-anthropocentric eco-sabotage grounded in species defense, while non-anthropocentric eco-sabotage grounded in defense against animal suffering has a lighter justificatory burden. (shrink)

Enactivism and ecological psychology converge on the relevance of the environment in understanding perception and action. On both views, perceiving organisms are not merely passive receivers of environmental stimuli, but rather form a dynamic relationship with their environments in such a way that shapes how they interact with the world. In this paper, I suggest that while enactivism and ecological psychology enjoy a shared specification of the environment as the cognitive domain, on both accounts, the structure of the (...) environment, itself, is unspecified beyond that of contingent relations with the species-typical sensorimotor capacities of perceiving organisms. This lack of specification creates a considerable gap in theory regarding the organization of organisms as coupled with their environments. I argue that this gap can be filled by drawing from resources in developmental systems theory, namely, specifying the environmental state-space as a developmental niche that shapes and is shaped by individual organisms over developmental and, on a population scale, evolutionary time. Defining the environment as an organism’s developmental niche makes it clearer how and why certain contingencies have arisen, in turn, strengthening a joint appeal to both enactivism and ecological psychology as theories asserting complementarity between organisms and their environments. (shrink)

Corporate social responsibility has become a focal point for research aimed at extending business ethics to extra-corporate issues; and as a result many companies now seek to at least appear dedicated to one or another version of CSR. This has not affected the arms industry, however. For, this industry has not been discussed in CSR literature, perhaps because few CSR scholars have questioned this industry's privileged status as an instrument of national sovereignty. But major changes in the organization of political (...) communities call traditional views of sovereignty into question. With these considerations in mind I assess the U.S. arms industry on the basis of CSR requirements regarding the environment, social equity, profitability, and use of political power. I find that this industry fails to meet any of these four CSR requirements. Countering a claim that these failings should not be held against arms manufacturers because their products are crucial to national defense, I contend that many of these companies function not as dutiful agents of a nation-state but as politically powerful entities in their own right. So, I conclude, they should be held responsible for the foreseeable consequences that flow from use of their products. This responsibility should include civil liability and, in cases involving war crimes and violations of human rights, responsibility under international human rights standards. (shrink)

The paper, Some Indigenous Solutions to African Environmental Problems: An Appraisal, is written to examine the relevance of African Environmental Philosophies to addressing African environmental problems. African environmental problems include: water pollution, air pollution, land pollution, climate change, flood and many more. Researchers have shown that these problems are caused by phenomena like coal mining, nuclear waste, deforestation, overfishing, wars, etc. It is a known fact that attempts have been made over the years to resolve these problems, with pockets of (...) successes, yet more needs to be done. Nigeria’s Niger Delta Development Commission, Kenya’s Bio-safty Act 2009, The National Environment Policy of Ghana, Oil Pipeline Act 2004, Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection Act 2004 are a good example of such attempts with pockets of successes and challenges. This work uses the methods of rational speculation and critical analysis to examine aboriginal approaches to resolving African environmental challenges as recorded in Mark Omorovie Ikeke’s Philosophical Consciences, Caroline N. Mbonu’s Ecospiritualism, Thaddeus Metz’s Model Relationalism, and Chimakonam Jonathan Okeke’s Ohanifism. This work charged African environmental policymakers, Lecturers, and Students with the responsibility to understand and apply the theoretical foundation for sustainable living as recorded in the above philosophies. This is the time when Africans must use indigenous African methods and principles to proffer solutions to African environmental problems. (shrink)

Philosophy for Life is a bold call for the practice of philosophy in our everyday lives. Philosopher and writer Rupert Read explores a series of important and often provocative contemporary political and cultural issues from a philosophical perspective, arguing that philosophy is not a body of doctrine, but a practice, a vantage point from which life should be analysed and, more importantly, acted upon. -/- Philosophy for Life is a personal journey that explores four key areas of society today: Politics, (...) Religion, Art, and the Environment. Taking tangible examples from modern politics, from climate change to the war on terror, and culture, from Peter Jackson's Lord of the Rings film trilogy to the poetry of T.S. Eliot, Read shows that philosophy is already an active part of today's world. This captivating and timely book offers a philosophical response to some of the key questions facing today's society and encourages us to use philosophy as a kind of therapy. Philosophy for Life shows that we can improve our perspective on the world and our place in it by doing philosophy everyday. (shrink)

Reedition of papers in English spanning from 1986 to 2009 /// Historical background -- An imposed legacy -- Twentieth century contemporaneity -- Appendix: The philosophy of teaching legal philosophy in Hungary /// HISTORICAL BACKGROUND -- PHILOSOPHY OF LAW IN CENTRAL & EASTERN EUROPE: A SKETCH OF HISTORY [1999] 11–21 // PHILOSOPHISING ON LAW IN THE TURMOIL OF COMMUNIST TAKEOVER IN HUNGARY (TWO PORTRAITS, INTERWAR AND POSTWAR: JULIUS MOÓR & ISTVÁN LOSONCZY) [2001–2002] 23–39: Julius Moór 23 / István Losonczy 29 // (...) ON THE SURVIVAL OF ILMAR TAMMELO’S LETTER AND MANUSCRIPT ADDRESSED TO PROFESSOR MOÓR [2009] 41–44 // PROFESSIONAL DISTRESS AND SCARCITY: ALEXANDER HORVÁTH AND THE LEGACY OF NATURAL LAW IN HUNGARY [2005] 45–50 // HUNGARIAN LEGAL PHILOSOPHY IN THE 20TH CENTURY [2011] 51–72: I. The Pre-war Period [1. Bódog (Felix) Somló (1871–1920) 52] / II. The Inter-war Period [2. Gyula (Julius) Moór (1888–1950) 54 / 3. Barna Horváth (1896–1973) 55 / 4. József Szabó (1909–1992) 57 / 5. István Bibó (1911–1979) 58 / 6. Tibor Vas (1911–1983) 59 / 7. István Losonczy (1918–1980) 60] III. The Post-war Period (Communism) 61 [8. Imre Szabó (1912–1991) 62 / 9. Vilmos Peschka (1929–2006) 63 / 10. Kálmán Kulcsár (1928–2010) 65] IV. Contemporary Trends and Perspectives 66 [11. Csaba Varga (b. 1941) 66 / 12. András Sajó (b. 1949) 69 / 13. Béla Pokol (b. 1950) 70] V. Our Understanding of the Law Today 71 --- AN IMPOSED LEGACY -- LOOKING BACK [1999] 75–94: 1. On Ideologies and Marxism in general 75 / 2. Life of an Intellectual in Communism 79 / 3. On Marxism and its Socialist Cultivation in Particular 82 / 4. Legal Philosophising [4.1. Approaches to Law 87 / 4.2. Arriving at a Legal Ontology 91] 5. Conclusion 94 // LEGAL PHILOSOPHY OF THE MARXISM OF SOCIALISM: HUNGARIAN OVERVIEW IN AN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE [2003] 95–151: I. Development and Balance of Marxist Philosophising on Law in Hungary [1. Preliminaries (until 1948) 96 / 2. Stalinism (from the Soviet Occupation on) {a) Liquidation of the »Residues« 98 / b) Soviet-type Uniformisation [Gleichschaltung] 99 / c) Denial of the Past, with a Dual Effect 99 / d) »Socialist Legality«, Drawn from the Progressive Past of Western Europe 103 / e) Search for the Germs of Scholarly Evolution 103} 3. Institutionalisation Accompanied by Relaxation (from the 1960s) [a) Epigonism Becoming the Scholarly Ideal 104 / b) Stalinism in a Critical Self-perspective 105 / c) Disciples Diversified Launching their own Trends 107 / d) Comparatism 110 / e) (Re)discovery of the Western Legal Philosophy as a Competitor 112 / f) A Leading Mediatory Role within the »Socialist World Order« 114} 4. Disintegration (in the 1980s) {a) Attempt at Laying New Foundations for Marxism with Epigonism Exhausted 115 / b) Competitive Trends Becoming Exclusive 115 / c) Western Legal Philosophy Acknowledged as a Fellow-traveller within the Socialist Orbit Proper 116 / d) Hungarian Legal Theory Transforming into a National Corpus 118 / e) The Practical Promotion of Some Balance 119} 5. End-game for a Substitute State Religion (in the 1990s) 120] II. Marxist Legal Philosophising in an International Perspective [Ad 1: To the Preliminaries 122 / Ad 2: To Stalinism 124 / Ad 3: To Institutionalisation Accompanied by Relaxation {a) Late Separation from Vishinskiy’s Theory 125 / b) From Ideological Self-closure to an Apparently Scholarly Openness 127 / c) From Political Ideology to Genuine Scholarship 130 / d) International Recognition of Socialist Jurisprudence as an Independent Trend 135 / e) Together with Western Trends 137} Ad 4: To Disintegration {a) Loss of Attraction as Mere Epigonism 139 / b) Exclusivity of Competing Trends 139 / c) Fellowship with »Bourgeois« Trends 140 / d) An own Trend, Internationally Recognised 141 / e) A yet Progressive Role 142} Ad 5: To the Present state 143] III. A Temporary Balance 145 // AUTONOMY AND INSTRUMENTALITY OF LAW IN A SUPERSTRUCTURAL PERSPECTIVE [1986] 151–175: 1. The Strange Fate of Concepts 151 / I. A Relational Category 2. Basis and Superstructure: The Genuine Meaning 154 / 3. Exerting Social Influence as a Conceptual Minimum 156 / 4. Relationships within the Prevailing Totality 158 / 5. Attempts at Interpretation in Hungary 159 / 6. The Lukácsian Stand 162 / 7. Lukács’s Recognitions 168 / 8. Some Criticism 169 / II. The Law’s Understanding 171 / 9. Law Interpreted as Superstructure 171 / 10. Conclusions Drawn for the Law’s Understanding 173 // LEGAL THEORY IN TRANSITION (A PREFACE FROM HUNGARY) [2000] 177–186 // DEVELOPMENT OF THEORETICAL LEGAL THOUGHT IN HUNGARY AT THE TURN OF THE MILLENNIUM [2006] 187–215: 1. International Environment 188 / 2. The Situation in Hungary 190 / 3. Outlook I: The Historical-comparative Study of Legal Cultures and of the Lawyerly Way of Thinking 203 / 4. Outlook II: The Paradigmatic Enigma of the Transition to Rule of Law 207 / 5. Incongruity in Practice 213 / 6. Perspectives 214 --- TWENTIETH CENTURY CONTEMPORANEITY -- CHANGE OF PARADIGMS IN LEGAL RECONSTRUCTION: CARL SCHMITT AND THE TEMPTATION TO FINALLY REACH A SYNTHESIS [2002] 219–234: 1. Dangers of Intellectualism 219 / 2. Schmitt in Facts 221 / 3. Schmitt and Kelsen 222 / 4. On Bordering Conditions 226 / 5. With Kelsen in Transubstantiation 230 / 6. Polarisation as the Path of Theoretical Development 232 // KELSENIAN DOCUMENTS IN HUNGARY: CHAPTERS ON CONTACTS, INCLUDING THE GENESIS OF AUTOBIOGRAPHY [2006] 235–243: 1. Preludes 235 / 2. The Search for Moór’s Bequeath 235 / 3. Moór’s Collegiality 238 / 4. Bibó as a Disciple Translating 241 // THE »HART-PHENOMENON« [2002] 245–267: I. The Hart-miracle 246 [1. The Scene of Britain at the Time 247 / 2. The Personal Career 250 / 3. The Opus’ Career 252 / 4. Verbal Sociologism 255 / 5. Growing into the British Pattern 259] II. The Hart-phenomenon 260 [6. Origination of a Strange Orthodoxy 261 / 7. Mastering Periods of the 20th Century 263 / 8. Raising the Issue of Reception in Hungary 365] // LITERATURE? A SUBSTITUTE FOR LEGAL PHILOSOPHY? [2007] 269–287: 1. The Enigma of Law and its Study 269 / 2. “Law and Literature” 271 / 3. Varieties of “Law and Literature” 274 / 4. The German Study of Artistic Representations 280 / 5. Some Literary Reconsiderations 285 / 6. Conclusion 287 --- APPENDIX -- THE PHILOSOPHY OF TEACHING LEGAL PHILOSOPHY IN HUNGARY [2007] 291–320: I. Why and How to Philosophise in Law? 291 / II. The State of Teaching Legal Philosophy 294 / III. The Philosophy of Teaching Legal Philosophy 296 / IV. Programme at the Catholic University of Hungary 300 [1. Graduate Studies 300 {a) Basic Subjects 301 / b) Facultative Seminars 305 / c) Closing Subjects 309 / d) Written Memoranda and the Thesis 312} 2. Postgraduate Studies 313 / 3. Conclusion 317] V. Perspectives 318 /// Index of Subjects 321 / Index of Normative Materials 328 / Index of Names 329 . (shrink)

Recent analyses have critically evaluated the connection of abstract rights with territorial nation-states. This article extends those findings by analyzing the way discourses of rights (human, political, national) are interconnected. It is argued that the system of relations that rights establish between their norms and concrete sociopolitical practices allows rights to function as overall machinery, one that both produces and governs subjects. From this perspective, this article establishes that: (a) since rights depend for their legal guarantee on the power of (...) nation-states, they are a normative standard which coincides with the political power of a nation-state; (b) since rights require a certain ethic from subjects in order that their exercise of rights be legally protectable, they govern subjects through inclusion, that is, by structuring fields of action in order that a certain “proper” conduct may take place; (c) since the nation-state framework with which rights are connected operates in a postcolonial order, the functioning of rights is also connected with the discursive dynamics of postcoloniality. The empirical focus of the discussion is on Pakistan. The first section focuses on the use of human rights’ discourse in order to counter drone attacks in Pakistan’s tribal belt. The conundrums that human rights in this context generate are then filled in by acknowledging “rights” of a state (i.e. political sovereignty and territorial integrity), which is the focus of second section. The third section comments on the way national and political rights correspond to the notions of “citizenship” and “belongingness,” which in turn shapes the conduct of subjects in a contextually apt manner. (shrink)

Why Nature Produces Intelligent Species Capable of Manipulating Energy and Forces -/- The universe operates under fundamental forces—gravity, electromagnetism, and nuclear interactions—that govern everything from the formation of galaxies to the behavior of subatomic particles. Humans, as products of nature, are composed of the same energies and forces that shape the cosmos. Yet, unlike other species, humans have developed the ability to manipulate these forces, harnessing energy to build civilizations, develop technology, and even alter the environment. This raises a (...) fundamental question: Why did nature evolve a species capable of controlling the very forces that created it? -/- By applying the universal law of balance in nature, we can understand that intelligence is not an anomaly but an extension of natural processes. It emerged as a self-regulating mechanism within the universe’s balancing system. This essay explores how intelligence arose from nature’s forces, how feedback mechanisms drive cognitive evolution, and why intelligence ultimately serves as a force of balance rather than disruption. -/- 1. Intelligence as an Emergent Property of Natural Laws -/- The universe is not random—it follows structured, predictable laws. The formation of stars, the orbits of planets, and the chemical reactions that sustain life all follow fundamental physical principles. Life itself, including intelligence, did not emerge outside these laws but as a result of them. -/- Energy and natural forces play a crucial role in the evolution of intelligence: -/- The sun’s energy fuels life through photosynthesis, driving the development of ecosystems. -/- Natural selection favors organisms that adapt efficiently to environmental conditions. -/- Over millions of years, complex nervous systems evolved, enabling organisms to respond, predict, and eventually manipulate their surroundings. -/- From this perspective, intelligence is not an unnatural phenomenon—it is a logical extension of the universe’s natural processes. Human intelligence, with its ability to manipulate energy, is simply another manifestation of the same forces that shape the cosmos. -/- 2. The Feedback Loop of Intelligence and Environment -/- According to the universal law of balance in nature, all systems—including human cognition—emerge through continuous feedback with the environment. This means that intelligence did not appear suddenly; it developed over time as a response to nature’s challenges. -/- Early lifeforms passively reacted to their environment, relying on instinct. -/- As brains evolved, some organisms developed the ability to predict events based on past experiences. -/- Eventually, humans acquired advanced cognition, allowing them to actively manipulate their surroundings rather than merely adapting to them. -/- This feedback mechanism explains why humans, as natural products of energy and forces, can manipulate those same forces. However, this manipulation does not place us above nature—it merely integrates us further into its balancing system. Every time humans alter their environment, nature responds, forcing us to adjust and correct our actions. -/- For example, industrialization allowed us to harness fossil fuels for energy, but excessive use led to climate change, compelling a shift toward sustainable alternatives. Similarly, nuclear power granted humanity immense energy capabilities, but its misuse resulted in disasters, reminding us of the consequences of imbalance. This demonstrates that intelligence is both a tool for progress and a mechanism for self-correction. -/- 3. Intelligence as a Self-Regulating Force in Nature -/- A crucial insight from the universal law of balance is that nature does not produce intelligence arbitrarily—it emerges because it enhances balance rather than disrupts it. While some human activities create imbalance, intelligence also allows for self-awareness and adaptation, leading to long-term equilibrium. -/- If intelligence were purely destructive, it would not be sustainable within nature’s balancing system. Instead, intelligent species must develop mechanisms for correcting their impact on the environment, or they face extinction. This is why civilizations that fail to maintain balance—whether through war, resource depletion, or environmental destruction—eventually collapse, reinforcing nature’s corrective principle. -/- 4. Implications for the Future -/- Understanding intelligence as a balancing force rather than a disruptor has profound implications for science, ethics, and technology. If humans recognize that their intelligence is a product of nature’s balance, they can use it to work with natural laws rather than against them. -/- For instance, artificial intelligence (AGI) should be designed with an awareness of balance, ensuring that it complements rather than destabilizes human civilization. Likewise, leadership and education should emphasize sustainable progress, guiding humanity toward decisions that align with the universal law of balance. -/- Conclusion -/- Humans, as products of energy and natural forces, have evolved the ability to manipulate those very forces because intelligence is an extension of nature’s balancing mechanism. While we can harness energy and reshape the world, we are still governed by the same universal laws that regulate all existence. Intelligence does not separate us from nature—it integrates us further into its feedback system. If we fail to maintain balance, nature will correct our course, just as it does with any force that threatens equilibrium. -/- By recognizing this reality, we can ensure that human progress aligns with the deeper harmony of the universe, using intelligence not as a means of domination but as a tool for maintaining balance. -/- . (shrink)